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'''''Elementary Calculus: An Infinitesimal approach''''' is a textbook by [[Howard Jerome Keisler|H. Jerome Keisler]]. The subtitle alludes to the [[infinitesimal]] numbers of the [[hyperreal number]] system of [[Abraham Robinson]] and is sometimes given as '''''An approach using infinitesimals.''''' The book is available freely online and is currently published by Dover.{{sfn|Keisler|2011}}

==Textbook==
Keisler's textbook is based on Robinson's construction of the [[hyperreal numbers]].  Because this is not a subject widely known{{sfn|Keisler|2011|loc=iv}} Keisler also published a companion book, ''Foundations of Infinitesimal Calculus'', for instructors which covers the foundational material in more depth.

Keisler defines all basic notions of the calculus such as continuity, derivative, and integral using infinitesimals. The usual definitions in terms of ε-δ techniques are provided at the end of Chapter 5 to enable a transition to a standard sequence.

In his textbook, Keisler used the pedagogical technique of an infinite-magnification microscope, so as to represent graphically, distinct [[hyperreal number]]s infinitely close to each other.  Similarly, an infinite-resolution telescope is used to represent infinite numbers.

When one examines a curve, say the graph of ''ƒ'', under a magnifying glass, its curvature decreases proportionally to the magnification power of the lens.  Similarly, an infinite-magnification microscope will transform an infinitesimal arc of a graph of ''ƒ'', into a straight line, up to an infinitesimal error (only visible by applying a higher-magnification "microscope").  The derivative of ''ƒ'' is then the ([[standard part]] of the) slope of that line.  Thus the microscope is used as a device in explaining the derivative.

==Reception==
The book was first reviewed by [[Errett Bishop]], noted for his work in constructive mathematics.  Bishop's review was harshly critical and has been described as ''vitriolic'' by historian [[Joseph Dauben]]{{citation needed|date=September 2012}}.  His review caused a controversy, which is detailed at the article [[Criticism of non-standard analysis]].  Shortly after [[Martin Davis]] and Hausner published a detailed favorable review, as did [[Andreas Blass]] and [[Keith Stroyan]].{{sfn|Davis|Hausner|1978}}{{sfn|Blass|1978}}{{sfn|Madison|Stroyan|1977}}  Keisler's student K.&nbsp;Sullivan,<ref>http://www.math.wisc.edu/oldhome/directories/alumni/1974.htm</ref> as part of her Ph.D. thesis, performed a controlled experiment involving 5 schools which found ''Elementary Calculus'' to have advantages over the standard method of teaching calculus.{{sfn|Keisler|2011}}{{sfn|Sullivan|1976}} Despite the benefits described by Sullivan, the vast majority of mathematicians were not convinced to adopt infinitesimal methods in their teaching.{{sfn|Tall|1980}} Recently, Katz & Katz{{sfn|Katz|Katz|2010}} give a positive account of a calculus course based on Keisler's book. O'Donovan also described his experience teaching calculus using infinitesimals.  His initial point of view was positive, {{sfn|O'Donovan|Kimber|2006}} but later he found pedagogical difficulties with approach to non-standard calculus taken by this text and others.{{sfn|O'Donovan|2007}}

Hrbacek writes that the definitions of ''continuity'', ''derivative'', and ''integral'' implicitly must be grounded in the ε-δ method in Robinson's theoretical framework, in order to extend definitions to include non-standard values of the inputs, claiming that the hope that non-standard calculus could be done without ε-δ methods could not be realized in full.{{sfn|Hrbacek|2007}} Błaszczyk et al. detail the usefulness of [[microcontinuity]] in developing a transparent definition of uniform continuity, and characterize Hrbacek's criticism as a "dubious lament".<ref>{{citation
 | last1 = Błaszczyk | first1 = Piotr
 | author1-link =
 | last2 = Katz | first2 = Mikhail
 | author2-link = Mikhail Katz
 | last3 = Sherry | first3 = David
 | author3-link = 
 | arxiv = 1202.4153
 | doi = 10.1007/s10699-012-9285-8
 | issue = 
 | journal = [[Foundations of Science]]
 | pages = 
 | title = Ten misconceptions from the history of analysis and their debunking
 | volume = 
 | year = 2012}}</ref>

==Transfer principle==
Between the first and second edition of the ''Elementary Calculus'', much of the theoretical material that was in the first chapter was moved to the epilogue at the end of the book, including the theoretical groundwork of non-standard analysis.

In the second edition Keisler introduces the extension principle and the transfer principle in the following form:
:Every real statement that holds for one or more particular real functions holds for the hyperreal natural extensions of these functions.

Keisler then gives a few examples of ''real statements'' to which the principle applies:
*Closure law for addition: for any ''x'' and ''y'', the sum ''x'' + ''y'' is defined.
*Commutative law for addition: ''x'' + ''y'' = ''y'' + ''x''.
*A rule for order: if 0 < ''x'' < ''y'' then 0 < 1/''y'' < 1/''x''.
*Division by zero is never allowed: ''x''/0 is undefined.
*An algebraic identity: <math>(x-y)^2 = x^2-2xy+y^2</math>.
*A trigonometric identity: <math>\sin^2 x + \cos^2 x = 1</math>.
*A rule for logarithms: If ''x'' > 0 and ''y'' > 0, then <math>\log_{10} (xy) = \log_{10}x + \log_{10}y</math>.

== See also ==
*[[Criticism of non-standard analysis]]
*[[Influence of non-standard analysis]]
* [[Non-standard calculus]]
* [[Increment theorem]]

==References==
*{{citation|last=Bishop|first=Errett|authorlink=Errett Bishop|title=Review: H. Jerome Keisler, Elementary calculus|journal=Bull. Amer. Math. Soc.|url=http://projecteuclid.org/euclid.bams/1183538669|volume= 83|year=1977|pages= 205&ndash;208}}
*{{citation|first1=Andreas|last1=Blass
 |author1-link = Andreas Blass
 |title=Review: Martin Davis, Applied nonstandard analysis, and K. D. Stroyan and W. A. J. Luxemburg, Introduction to the theory of infinitesimals, and H. Jerome Keisler, Foundations of infinitesimal calculus|journal=Bull. Amer. Math. Soc.
 |volume=84
 |number=1
 |year=1978
 |pages=34–41|url=http://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1978-84-01/S0002-9904-1978-14401-2/home.html}}
::Blass writes: "I suspect that many mathematicians harbor, somewhere in the back of their minds, the formula <math>\int \sqrt{(dx)^2 + (dy)^2}</math> for arc length (and quickly factor out ''dx'' before writing it down)" (p. 35).
::"Often, as in the examples above, the nonstandard definition of a concept is simpler than the standard definition (both intuitively simpler and simpler in a technical sense, such as quantifiers over lower types or fewer alternations of quantifiers)" (p. 37).
::"The relative simplicity of the nonstandard definitions of some concepts of elementary analysis suggests a pedagogical application in freshman calculus. One could make use of the students' intuitive ideas about infinitesimals (which are usually very vague, but so are their ideas about real numbers) to develop calculus on a nonstandard basis" (p. 38).
*{{citation|title=  Review: J. Donald Monk, Mathematical logic|first=Martin|last= Davis|journal=Bull. Amer. Math. Soc.| volume =83|year=1977|pages =1007&ndash;1011|url=http://projecteuclid.org/euclid.bams/1183539465}}
*{{citation|last1=Davis|first1=M.|last2=Hausner|first2=M|year=1978|title=Book review. The Joy of Infinitesimals. J. Keisler's Elementary Calculus|journal=Mathematical Intelligencer|volume=1|pages=168–170|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/d9u46n637vrtr875/fulltext.pdf}}.
*{{citation|last1=Hrbacek|first1=K.|last2=Lessmann|first2=O.| last3=O’Donovan|first3=R.|title=Analysis with Ultrasmall Numbers|journal=American Mathematical Monthly|volume=117|number=9|date=November 2010|pages=801–816}}
*{{citation|last1=Hrbacek|first1=K.|editor1-last=Van Den Berg|editor1-first=I.|editor2-last=Neves|editor2-first=V.| chapter=Stratified Analysis?|title=The Strength of Nonstandard Analysis|publisher=Springer|year=2007}}
*{{citation | last1 = Katz | first1 = Karin Usadi | last2 = Katz | first2 = Mikhail G. | author2-link = Mikhail Katz | arxiv = 1007.3018 | issue = 1 | journal = [[The Montana Mathematics Enthusiast]] | pages = 3–30 | title = When is .999... less than 1? | url = http://www.math.umt.edu/TMME/vol7no1/ | volume = 7 | year = 2010}}
*{{citation|first=H. Jerome|last= Keisler|title=Elementary Calculus: An Approach Using Infinitesimals|year= 1976|url= http://www.math.wisc.edu/~keisler/calc.html|publisher=Prindle Weber & Schmidt|isbn=978-0871509116}}
*{{citation|first=H. Jerome |last=Keisler|title= Foundations of Infinitesimal Calculus|url= http://www.math.wisc.edu/~keisler/foundations.html |accessdate=10 jan 2007|publisher= Prindle Weber & Schmidt |year= 1976|isbn=978-0871502155}} A companion to the  textbook ''Elementary Calculus: An Approach Using Infinitesimals''.
*{{Citation | last1=Keisler | first1=H. Jerome | author1-link=Howard Jerome Keisler | title=Elementary Calculus: An Infinitesimal Approach | url=http://www.math.wisc.edu/~keisler/calc.html | publisher=[[Dover Publications]] | location=New York | edition=2nd | isbn=978-0-486-48452-5 | year=2011}}
*{{citation|first1=E. W.|last1=Madison|first2=K. D.|last2=Stroyan|title=Elementary Calculus. by H. Jerome Keisler|journal=The American Mathematical Monthly|volume=84|number=6|date=Jun–Jul 1977|pages=496–500
|jstor=2321930
}}
*{{citation|last1=O'Donovan|first1=R.|editor1-last=Van Den Berg|editor1-first=I.|editor2-last=Neves|editor2-first=V.|chapter=Pre-University Analysis|title=The Strength of Nonstandard Analysis|publisher=Springer|year=2007}}
*{{citation|last1=O'Donovan|first1=R.|last2=Kimber|first2=J.|editor1-first=N|editor1-last=Cultand|editor2-first=M.|editor2-last=Di Nasso|edit-first3=D.|editor3-last=Ross|chapter=Nonstandard analysis at pre-university level: Naive magnitude analysis|title=Nonstandard Methods and Applications in Mathematics|series=Lecture Notes in Logic|volume=25|year=2006}}
*{{citation|last1=Stolzenberg|first1=G.|journal=Notices of the American Mathematical Society|volume=25|number=4|date=June 1978|pages=242}}
*{{citation|doi=10.2307/2318657|title=The Teaching of Elementary Calculus Using the Nonstandard Analysis Approach|first=Kathleen|last= Sullivan|
journal=The American Mathematical Monthly|volume= 83|year=1976|pages= 370–375|issue=5|publisher=Mathematical Association of America|jstor=2318657}}
*{{citation
|first=David
|last=Tall
| author1-link = David O. Tall
|url=http://www.warwick.ac.uk/staff/David.Tall/pdfs/dot1980c-intuitive-infls.pdf|title=Intuitive infinitesimals in the calculus (poster)|publisher=Fourth International Congress on Mathematics Education, Berkeley|year=1980}}

==Ref-notes==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.math.wisc.edu/~keisler/calc.html Book in PDF format]

{{Infinitesimals}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2011}}

[[Category:Calculus]]
[[Category:Non-standard analysis]]
[[Category:Mathematics of infinitesimals]]