Fragility - Revision history

en>Oisguad: /* Definition */ and an even simpler form

2014-12-04T16:05:40Z

Definition: and an even simpler form

← Older revision		Revision as of 18:05, 4 December 2014
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	~~The '''experiments of Rayleigh and Brace''' (1902, 1904) were aimed to show whether [[length contraction]] leads to [[birefringence]] or not~~. ~~They were some of the first optical experiments measuring the relative motion of Earth and the~~ [~~[luminiferous aether]] which were sufficiently precise to detect magnitudes of second order to v~~/c. ~~The results were negative, which was of great importance for the development of the [[Lorentz transformation]] and consequently of the [[theory of relativity]]~~. ~~See also [[Tests of special relativity]~~].		Twitter.com - [https://Twitter.com/NeinsteinGary https://Twitter.com/NeinsteinGary]. The law has stated plainly that whenever an individual abuses the power and authority vested in his/her position, it suggests he or she injures you. When you do not get equal chances and reasonable treatment at your work area, you can likewise consult a lawyer to learn your legal options. If sexual harassment, discrimination and gender inequality continue, you can also take legal action.<br><br>29. When salaried workers are sick or on getaway, the law firm typically still pays them. But when a VBA is ill or on vacation, you don't pay anything. VBAs are personal injury advice just paid when the work is finished to the lawyer's satisfaction.<br><br>You have to let all people involved that you are changing your legal representative. Confusion can be anticipated if some other attorney stand in front of the court and protect you. That is why you have to let the judge, the other party and anyone who is included on the case of the modifications on your side.<br><br>You still are entitled to payment for accidents, even if you have a preexisting condition. You have to be really honest with your attorney and document the clinical issues you had before the accident. He requires to prevent being blind sided in court.<br><br>Do not let a personal injury destroy your year and prevent you from taking pleasure in life and taking the chance to have some good times with pals and family at places to see such as these.<br><br>Search for an injury personal injury law that you can such as. You could be believing company is business and why ought to suching as someone be a part of it. However remember: you'll be investing a great deal of energy and time together and the whole process can be stressful. It'll be much simpler to deal with if you like your attorney.<br><br>Just how much [https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&gl=us&tbm=nws&q=experience&btnI=lucky experience] does the lawyer have in injury and what percentage of his or her practice does it compromise? If it's a hobby in the scope of the practice, keep looking.

	==The ~~experiments==~~

	~~To explain~~ the ~~negative outcome of the [[Michelson–Morley experiment]], [[George FitzGerald]] (1889)~~ and ~~[[Hendrik Lorentz]] (1892) introduced the [[Length contraction\|contraction hypothesis]]~~, ~~according to which a body is contracted during its motion through the stationary [[Luminiferous aether\|aether]]~~.

	~~[[John William Strutt~~, ~~3rd Baron Rayleigh\|Lord Rayleigh]] (1902) interpreted this contraction as~~ a ~~mechanical compression which should lead~~ to ~~optical anisotropy of materials, so the different [[Refractive index\|refraction indices]] would cause [[birefringence]]~~. ~~To measure this effect, he installed a tube of 76 cm length upon a rotatable table. The tube was closed by glass at its ends~~, and ~~was filled with carbon bisulphide or water~~, ~~and the liquid was between two [[nicol prism]]s. Through the liquid, light (produced by an electric lamp and more importantly by [[limelight]]) was sent to and fro~~. ~~The experiment was sufficiently precise to measure retardations of~~ <~~math~~>~~\tfrac{1}{6000}~~<~~/math~~> of a ~~half [[wavelength]]~~, ''i.~~e.'' of~~ the ~~order {{val\|1.2\|e=-10}}. Depending on~~ the ~~direction relative to Earth~~'s ~~motion, the expected retardation due to birefringence was of order 10~~<~~sup~~>−8<~~/sup~~>~~, which was well within the accuracy~~ of the ~~experiment~~. ~~Therefore it was~~, ~~besides~~ the ~~Michelson-Morley experiment~~ and the ~~[[Trouton–Noble experiment]], one~~ of the ~~few experiments by which magnitudes of second order in v/c could be detected~~. ~~However~~, ~~the result was completely negative~~. ~~Rayleigh repeated the experiments with layers of glass plates (although~~ with ~~a diminished precision by a factor of 100),~~ and ~~again obtained a negative result.<ref>{{Cite journal\|author=Lord Rayleigh\|title=[[s:en:Does Motion through~~ the ~~Aether cause Double Refraction?\|Does Motion through~~ the ~~Aether cause Double Refraction?]]\|journal=Philosophical Magazine\|volume=4\|year=1902\|pages=678–683}}</ref>~~

	~~However, those experiments were criticized by [[DeWitt Bristol Brace]] (1904)~~. He ~~argued that Rayleigh hadn't properly considered the consequences of contraction ({{val\|0~~.~~5\|e=-8}} instead of 10~~<~~sup~~>−8<~~/sup~~>~~) as well as of the refraction index, so that the results were~~ in ~~no way conclusive. Therefore, Brace conducted experiments of much higher precision. He employed an apparatus that was 4.13 m long, 15 cm wide, and 27 cm deep, which was filled with water,~~ and ~~which could be rotated (depending on~~ the ~~experiment) about a vertical or a horizontal axis. [[Sun light]] was directed into the water through a system of lenses, mirrors and reflexion prisms, and was reflected 7~~ times ~~so that it traversed 28.5 m. In this way, a retardation of order {{val\|7.8\|e=-13}} was observable. However, also Brace obtained a negative result. Another experimental installation~~ with ~~glass instead of water (precision: {{val\|4.5\|e=-11}}), also yielded no sign of birefringence~~.<~~ref~~>{{Cite journal\|author=Brace, DeWitt Bristol\|title=[[s:en:On Double Refraction in Matter moving through the Aether\|On Double Refraction in Matter moving through the Aether]]\|journal=Philosophical Magazine\|volume=7\|issue=40\|year=1904\|pages=317–329}}<~~/ref~~>

	~~[[File:Brace1904~~.~~png\|500px\|center]]~~

	~~The absence of birefringence was initially interpreted by Brace~~ as a ~~refutation~~ of ~~length contraction~~. However~~, it was shown by Lorentz (1904)~~ and ~~[[Joseph Larmor]] (1904) that when the contraction hypothesis is maintained~~ and the ~~complete Lorentz transformation is employed (''i.e.'' including the time transformation), then the negative outcome~~ can be ~~explained~~. ~~Furthermore, if the [[relativity principle]] is considered as valid from the outset, as in [[Albert Einstein]]~~'s theory of [[special relativity]] (1905), then the result is quite clear, since an observer in uniform translational motion can consider himself as at rest, and consequently won't experience any effect of his own motion. Length contraction is thus not measurable by a co-moving observer, and has to ~~be supplemented by [[time dilation]], which was subsequently also confirmed by the [[Trouton–Rankine experiment]] (1908) and the [[Kennedy–Thorndike experiment]] (1932)~~.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon\|year=1904\|title=[[s:Electromagnetic phenomena\|Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity smaller than that of light]]\|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences\|volume=6\|pages=809–831}}</ref>
	<~~ref~~>{{Cite journal\|author=Larmor, Joseph\|title=[[s:en:Absence of Effects of Motion through the Aether\|On the ascertained Absence of Effects of Motion through the Aether, in relation to the Constitution of Matter, and on the FitzGerald-Lorentz Hypothesis]]\|journal=Philosophical Magazine\|volume=7\|issue=42\|year=1904\|pages=621–625}}</ref>
	<ref group=A>{{Cite journal\|author=Laub, Jakob\|title=Über die experimentellen Grundlagen des Relativitätsprinzips\|journal=Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik\|volume=7\|year=1910\|pages=405–463}}</ref>
	~~<ref group=A>{{Cite book\|author=~~[~~[Edmund Taylor Whittaker]]\|year=1910\|title=A History of the theories of aether and electricity\|edition=1. Ausgabe\|location=Dublin\|publisher=Longman, Green and Co.\|url=http~~://www.~~archive~~.~~org~~/~~details/historyoftheorie00whitrich}}</ref>~~

	==~~See also~~==
	* [[History of special relativity]]

	=~~=Primary sources==~~
	~~<references />~~

	~~==Secondary sources==~~
	~~<references group=A/>~~

	~~[[Category:Physics experiments~~]]
	~~[[Category:Special relativity]]~~


	~~{{Tests~~ of ~~special relativity}}~~

en>Bgwhite: Fix section heading per WP:MOSHEAD using AWB (9838)

2014-01-10T22:18:30Z

Fix section heading per WP:MOSHEAD using AWB (9838)

← Older revision		Revision as of 00:18, 11 January 2014
Line 1:		Line 1:
			The '''experiments of Rayleigh and Brace''' (1902, 1904) were aimed to show whether [[length contraction]] leads to [[birefringence]] or not. They were some of the first optical experiments measuring the relative motion of Earth and the [[luminiferous aether]] which were sufficiently precise to detect magnitudes of second order to v/c. The results were negative, which was of great importance for the development of the [[Lorentz transformation]] and consequently of the [[theory of relativity]]. See also [[Tests of special relativity]].

			==The experiments==

	~~Dean Almaguer~~ is ~~what my partner loves~~ to ~~connect~~ with me and ~~I totally really like this title~~. As a ~~girl what I truly like is looking at movies but I really don~~'~~t have~~ the ~~time currently~~. ~~Business office~~ [~~http~~://En.~~wiktionary~~.~~org/wiki/supervising supervising] is what I do~~. ~~My husband~~ and ~~I selected to reside in Oregon but I will have to transfer in~~ a ~~year~~ or ~~two~~. ~~Verify out~~ the ~~most up~~-to-~~date news on my site~~: ~~http~~:/~~/www~~.~~heredadtorresano~~.~~com/christian/christian~~-~~louboutin-outlet-espana-03689283~~.~~html~~<br><br>~~Feel free~~ to ~~visit my web blog;~~ [http://www.~~heredadtorresano~~.~~com~~/~~christian~~/~~christian-louboutin-outlet-espana-03689283.html christian louboutin outlet espa&~~]		To explain the negative outcome of the [[Michelson–Morley experiment]], [[George FitzGerald]] (1889) and [[Hendrik Lorentz]] (1892) introduced the [[Length contraction\|contraction hypothesis]], according to which a body is contracted during its motion through the stationary [[Luminiferous aether\|aether]].

			[[John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh\|Lord Rayleigh]] (1902) interpreted this contraction as a mechanical compression which should lead to optical anisotropy of materials, so the different [[Refractive index\|refraction indices]] would cause [[birefringence]]. To measure this effect, he installed a tube of 76 cm length upon a rotatable table. The tube was closed by glass at its ends, and was filled with carbon bisulphide or water, and the liquid was between two [[nicol prism]]s. Through the liquid, light (produced by an electric lamp and more importantly by [[limelight]]) was sent to and fro. The experiment was sufficiently precise to measure retardations of <math>\tfrac{1}{6000}</math> of a half [[wavelength]], ''i.e.'' of the order {{val\|1.2\|e=-10}}. Depending on the direction relative to Earth's motion, the expected retardation due to birefringence was of order 10<sup>−8</sup>, which was well within the accuracy of the experiment. Therefore it was, besides the Michelson-Morley experiment and the [[Trouton–Noble experiment]], one of the few experiments by which magnitudes of second order in v/c could be detected. However, the result was completely negative. Rayleigh repeated the experiments with layers of glass plates (although with a diminished precision by a factor of 100), and again obtained a negative result.<ref>{{Cite journal\|author=Lord Rayleigh\|title=[[s:en:Does Motion through the Aether cause Double Refraction?\|Does Motion through the Aether cause Double Refraction?]]\|journal=Philosophical Magazine\|volume=4\|year=1902\|pages=678–683}}</ref>

			However, those experiments were criticized by [[DeWitt Bristol Brace]] (1904). He argued that Rayleigh hadn't properly considered the consequences of contraction ({{val\|0.5\|e=-8}} instead of 10<sup>−8</sup>) as well as of the refraction index, so that the results were in no way conclusive. Therefore, Brace conducted experiments of much higher precision. He employed an apparatus that was 4.13 m long, 15 cm wide, and 27 cm deep, which was filled with water, and which could be rotated (depending on the experiment) about a vertical or a horizontal axis. [[Sun light]] was directed into the water through a system of lenses, mirrors and reflexion prisms, and was reflected 7 times so that it traversed 28.5 m. In this way, a retardation of order {{val\|7.8\|e=-13}} was observable. However, also Brace obtained a negative result. Another experimental installation with glass instead of water (precision: {{val\|4.5\|e=-11}}), also yielded no sign of birefringence.<ref>{{Cite journal\|author=Brace, DeWitt Bristol\|title=[[s:en:On Double Refraction in Matter moving through the Aether\|On Double Refraction in Matter moving through the Aether]]\|journal=Philosophical Magazine\|volume=7\|issue=40\|year=1904\|pages=317–329}}</ref>

			[[File:Brace1904.png\|500px\|center]]

			The absence of birefringence was initially interpreted by Brace as a refutation of length contraction. However, it was shown by Lorentz (1904) and [[Joseph Larmor]] (1904) that when the contraction hypothesis is maintained and the complete Lorentz transformation is employed (''i.e.'' including the time transformation), then the negative outcome can be explained. Furthermore, if the [[relativity principle]] is considered as valid from the outset, as in [[Albert Einstein]]'s theory of [[special relativity]] (1905), then the result is quite clear, since an observer in uniform translational motion can consider himself as at rest, and consequently won't experience any effect of his own motion. Length contraction is thus not measurable by a co-moving observer, and has to be supplemented by [[time dilation]], which was subsequently also confirmed by the [[Trouton–Rankine experiment]] (1908) and the [[Kennedy–Thorndike experiment]] (1932).<ref>{{Citation\|author=Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon\|year=1904\|title=[[s:Electromagnetic phenomena\|Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity smaller than that of light]]\|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences\|volume=6\|pages=809–831}}</ref>
			<ref>{{Cite journal\|author=Larmor, Joseph\|title=[[s:en:Absence of Effects of Motion through the Aether\|On the ascertained Absence of Effects of Motion through the Aether, in relation to the Constitution of Matter, and on the FitzGerald-Lorentz Hypothesis]]\|journal=Philosophical Magazine\|volume=7\|issue=42\|year=1904\|pages=621–625}}</ref>
			<ref group=A>{{Cite journal\|author=Laub, Jakob\|title=Über die experimentellen Grundlagen des Relativitätsprinzips\|journal=Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik\|volume=7\|year=1910\|pages=405–463}}</ref>
			<ref group=A>{{Cite book\|author=[[Edmund Taylor Whittaker]]\|year=1910\|title=A History of the theories of aether and electricity\|edition=1. Ausgabe\|location=Dublin\|publisher=Longman, Green and Co.\|url=http://www.archive.org/details/historyoftheorie00whitrich}}</ref>

			==See also==
			* [[History of special relativity]]

			==Primary sources==
			<references />

			==Secondary sources==
			<references group=A/>

			[[Category:Physics experiments]]
			[[Category:Special relativity]]


			{{Tests of special relativity}}

en>Lateg: Undid revision 474506391 by 70.109.218.12 (talk) test edit

2012-03-24T18:23:38Z

Undid revision 474506391 by 70.109.218.12 (talk) test edit

New page

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