Hole argument - Revision history

en>Remotelysensed: /* Disputing the above version of Einstein's hole argument */

2014-04-20T17:36:55Z

Disputing the above version of Einstein's hole argument

← Older revision		Revision as of 19:36, 20 April 2014
Line 1:		Line 1:
	~~They call me Emilia~~. ~~What I adore~~ performing is ~~playing baseball but I haven't produced a dime with~~ it. ~~North~~ Dakota is ~~exactly~~ where me and my spouse live~~. Bookkeeping is~~ my ~~occupation~~.<br><br>~~Also visit~~ my ~~website~~ - ~~home std test kit;~~ [http://~~Revleft~~.com/vb/~~member.php?u=160656~~ home~~-page~~],		The author is known by the name of Figures Wunder. To perform baseball is the pastime he will never stop performing. Hiring is her working day occupation now and she will not alter it whenever quickly. South Dakota is where me and my spouse live and my family members enjoys it.<br><br>my web page - [http://www.1a-pornotube.com/blog/84958 at home std testing]

en>Frankenschulz: /* External links */

2014-02-24T21:22:42Z

External links

← Older revision		Revision as of 23:22, 24 February 2014
Line 1:		Line 1:
	~~{{essay\|date=November 2010}}~~		They call me Emilia. What I adore performing is playing baseball but I haven't produced a dime with it. North Dakota is exactly where me and my spouse live. Bookkeeping is my occupation.<br><br>Also visit my website - home std test kit; [http://Revleft.com/vb/member.php?u=160656 home-page],

	~~'''Indeterminacy in concurrent computation''' is concerned with the effects of [[Indeterminacy in computation\|indeterminacy]] in [[concurrent computation]]~~.

	~~Computation~~ is an area in which indeterminacy is becoming increasingly important because of the massive increase in concurrency due to networking and the advent of [[Multi-core processor\|many-core]] computer architectures. These computer systems make use of [[Arbiter (electronics)\|arbiters]] which give rise to [[indeterminacy]].

	~~==A limitation of logic programming==~~
	[[Patrick J. Hayes\|Patrick Hayes]] [1973] argued that the "usual sharp distinction that is made between the processes of computation and deduction, is misleading". [[Robert Kowalski]] developed the thesis that '~~'computation could be subsumed by deduction'' and quoted~~ with approval "Computation is controlled deduction." which he attributed to Hayes in his 1988 paper on the early history of Prolog. Contrary to Kowalski and Hayes, [[Carl Hewitt]] claimed that logical deduction was incapable of carrying out concurrent computation in open systems{{fact\|date=January 2011}}.

	Hewitt [1985] and Agha [1991], and other published work argued that mathematical models of concurrency did not determine particular concurrent computations as follows: The Actor model makes use of arbitration (often in the form of notional [[Arbiter (electronics)\|Arbiters]]) for determining which message is next in the [[Actor model theory#Arrival orderings\|arrival ordering]] of an Actor that is sent multiple messages concurrently. This introduces [[Arbiter (electronics)#Arbiters give rise to indeterminacy\|indeterminacy]] in the arrival order. Since the arrival orderings are indeterminate, they cannot be deduced from prior information by mathematical logic alone. Therefore mathematical logic can not implement concurrent computation in open systems.

	~~The authors note that although mathematical logic cannot, in their view, implement general concurrency~~ it ~~can implement some special cases of concurrent computation, ''e.g.,'' sequential computation and some kinds of [[parallel programming\|parallel]] computation including the [[lambda calculus]]~~.

	~~==Arrival order indeterminacy==~~
	~~According to Hewitt, in concrete terms for Actor systems, typically we cannot observe the details by which the arrival order of messages for an Actor~~ is ~~determined. Attempting to do so affects the results and can even push the indeterminacy elsewhere. e.g., see [[metastability in electronics]]~~ and ~~[[Arbiter (electronics)\|arbiters]]. Instead of observing the internals of arbitration processes of Actor computations, we await outcomes~~. ~~Indeterminacy in arbiters produces indeterminacy in Actors. The reason that we await outcomes~~ is ~~that we have no alternative because of indeterminacy~~.

	It is important to be clear about the basis for the published claim about the limitation of mathematical logic. It was not just that Actors could not in general be implemented in mathematical logic. The published claim was that because of the indeterminacy of the physical basis of the Actor model, that no kind of deductive mathematical logic could escape the limitation. This became important later when researchers attempted to extend [[Prolog]] (which had some basis in [[logic programming]]) to concurrent computation using message passing. (See the section below).

	What does the mathematical theory of Actors have to say about this? A ''closed'' system is defined to be one which does not communicate with the outside. [[Actor model theory]] provides the means to characterize all the possible computations of a closed Actor system using the Representation Theorem [Hewitt 2007] as follows:

	~~:The mathematical denotation denoted by a closed system~~ <tt>S<~~/tt~~> is found by constructing increasingly better approximations from an initial behavior called <tt>⊥<sub>S</sub></tt> using a behavior approximating function <tt>'''progression'''<sub>S</sub></tt> to construct a denotation (meaning ) for <tt>S</tt> as follows :
	~~::<tt>'''Denote'''<sub>S</sub> ≡ <math> \lim_{i \to \infty}</math> '''progression'''<sub>S</sub><sup>i</sup>(⊥<sub>S</sub>)</tt>~~

	~~In this way, the behavior of <tt>S</tt> can be mathematically characterized in terms of all its possible behaviors (including those involving unbounded nondeterminism).~~

	~~So mathematical logic can characterize (as opposed to implement) all the possible computations of a closed Actor system.~~

	~~==A limitation of logic due to lack of information==~~
	An open Actor system <tt>S</tt> is one in which the addresses of outside Actors can be passed into <tt>S</tt> in the middle of computations so that <tt>S<tt> can communicate with these outside Actors. These outside Actors can then in turn communicate with Actors internal to <tt>S</tt> using addresses supplied to them by <tt>S</tt>. Due to limitation of the inability to deduce arrival orderings, knowledge of what messages are sent from outside would not enable the response of <tt>S</tt> to be deduced.
	When other models of concurrent systems ( ''e.g.,'' [[process calculi]]) are used to implement open systems, these systems also can have behavior that depends on arrival time orderings and so cannot be implemented by logical deduction.

	~~==Prolog~~-~~like concurrent systems were claimed to be based on mathematical logic==~~
	[[Keith Clark]], Hervé Gallaire, Steve Gregory, Vijay Saraswat, Udi Shapiro, Kazunori Ueda, etc. developed a family of [[Prolog]]-like concurrent message passing systems using unification of shared variables and data structure streams for messages. Claims were made that these systems were based on mathematical logic.{{Fact\|date=March 2007}} This kind of system was used as the basis of the [[Fifth generation computer\|Japanese Fifth Generation Project (ICOT)]].

	Carl Hewitt and Gul Agha [1991] argued that these Prolog-like concurrent systems were neither deductive nor logical: like the Actor model, the Prolog-like concurrent systems were based on message passing and consequently were subject to the same indeterminacy.

	~~==Logical operations and system efficiency==~~
	Hewitt maintained that a basic lesson can be learned from Prolog and the Prolog-like concurrent systems: a universal model of concurrent computation is limited by having any mandatory overhead in the basic communication mechanisms. This is an argument against including pattern-directed invocation using unification and extraction of messages from data structure streams as fundamental primitives. But compare Shapiro's survey of Prolog-like concurrent programming languages for arguments for inclusion.

	~~==Indeterminacy in other models of computation==~~
	Arbitration is the basis of the indeterminacy in the [[Actor model]] of concurrent computation (see [[Actor model early history]] and [[Actor model theory]]). It may also play a role in other models of concurrent systems such as [[process calculi]].

	~~==See also==~~
	*[[Quantum computer]]
	*[[Randomized algorithm]]
	*[[Nondeterministic Turing machine]]

	~~==References==~~
	*[[Carl Hewitt]] [http://~~what-is-computation~~.carlhewitt.info ''What is computation? Actor Model versus Turing's Model''] in A Computable Universe: Understanding Computation & Exploring Nature as Computation. Dedicated to the memory of Alan M. Turing on the 100th anniversary of his birth. Edited by Hector Zenil. World Scientific Publishing Company. 2012
	*Carl Hewitt. '''PLANNER: A Language for Proving Theorems in Robots''' [[IJCAI]] 1969.
	*Carl Hewitt. '''Procedural Embedding of Knowledge In Planner''' IJCAI 1971.
	*Carl Hewitt, Peter Bishop and Richard Steiger. '''A Universal Modular Actor Formalism for Artificial Intelligence''' IJCAI 1973.
	*[[Robert Kowalski]] '''Predicate Logic as Programming Language''' Memo 70, Department of Artificial Intelligence, [[Edinburgh University]]. 1973.
	*Pat Hayes. '''Computation and Deduction''' Mathematical Foundations of Computer Science: Proceedings of Symposium and Summer School, Štrbské Pleso, High Tatras, Czechoslovakia, September 3-8, 1973.
	*Carl Hewitt and [[Henry Baker (computer scientist)\|Henry Baker]] '''Laws for Communicating Parallel Processes''' IFIP-77, August 1977.
	*Carl Hewitt. '''Viewing Control Structures as Patterns of Passing Messages''' [[Journal of Artificial Intelligence]]. June 1977.
	*Henry Baker. '''Actor Systems for Real-Time Computation''' MIT EECS Doctoral Dissertation. January 1978.
	*Bill Kornfeld and Carl Hewitt. '''The Scientific Community Metaphor''' [[IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics]]. January 1981.
	*Will Clinger. '''Foundations of Actor Semantics''' [[MIT]] Mathematics Doctoral Dissertation. June 1981.
	*Carl Hewitt. '''The Challenge of Open Systems''' Byte Magazine. April 1985. Reprinted in ''The foundation of artificial intelligence---a sourcebook'' Cambridge University Press. 1990.
	*Gul Agha. '''[https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/~~1721.1~~/~~6952 Actors: A Model of Concurrent Computation in Distributed Systems]''' Doctoral Dissertation. MIT Press~~. ~~1986.~~
	*Robert Kowalski. '''The limitation of logic''' Proceedings of the 1986 ACM 14th Annual Conference on Computer science.
	*Ehud Shapiro (Editor). '''Concurrent Prolog''' [[MIT Press]]. 1987.
	*Robert Kowalski. '''The Early Years of Logic Programming''' [[Communications of the ACM]]. January 1988.
	*Ehud Shapiro. '''The family of concurrent logic programming languages''' [[ACM Computing Surveys]]. September 1989.
	*Carl Hewitt and Gul Agha. '''Guarded Horn clause languages: are they deductive and Logical?~~''' International Conference on Fifth Generation Computer Systems, Ohmsha 1988. Tokyo. Also in ''Artificial Intelligence at MIT'', Vol. 2. MIT Press 1991.~~
	Carl Hewitt. Carl Hewitt. '''The repeated demise of logic programming and why it will be reincarnated''' What Went Wrong and Why: Lessons from AI Research and Applications. Technical Report SS-06-08. AAAI Press. March 2006.

	=~~= External links ==~~
	* [http://channel9.msdn.com/Shows/Going+Deep/Hewitt-Meijer-and-Szyperski-The-Actor-Model-everything-you-wanted-to-know-but-~~were-afraid-to-ask Hewitt, Meijer and Szyperski: The Actor Model (everything you wanted to know, but were afraid to ask)~~] ~~Microsoft Channel 9. April 9~~, ~~2012.~~

	~~[[Category:Actor model]]~~
	~~[[Category:Logic programming]]~~
	~~[[Category:Determinism]]~~

en>Jonathanischoice: The manifold is singular.

2013-12-23T00:03:07Z

The manifold is singular.

← Older revision		Revision as of 02:03, 23 December 2013
Line 1:		Line 1:
	The ~~writer~~'~~s title~~ is ~~Christy Brookins~~. ~~To perform lacross~~ is the ~~thing I love most~~ of ~~all~~. ~~North Carolina~~ is the ~~location he enjoys most but now he~~ is ~~considering other options~~. ~~Office supervising~~ is ~~my profession~~.<br><br>~~my blog; clairvoyance~~ - [http://~~mybrandcp~~.~~com~~/xe/~~board_XmDx25~~/~~107997 click through~~ the ~~next web page~~] -		{{essay\|date=November 2010}}

			'''Indeterminacy in concurrent computation''' is concerned with the effects of [[Indeterminacy in computation\|indeterminacy]] in [[concurrent computation]].

			Computation is an area in which indeterminacy is becoming increasingly important because of the massive increase in concurrency due to networking and the advent of [[Multi-core processor\|many-core]] computer architectures. These computer systems make use of [[Arbiter (electronics)\|arbiters]] which give rise to [[indeterminacy]].

			==A limitation of logic programming==
			[[Patrick J. Hayes\|Patrick Hayes]] [1973] argued that the "usual sharp distinction that is made between the processes of computation and deduction, is misleading". [[Robert Kowalski]] developed the thesis that ''computation could be subsumed by deduction'' and quoted with approval "Computation is controlled deduction." which he attributed to Hayes in his 1988 paper on the early history of Prolog. Contrary to Kowalski and Hayes, [[Carl Hewitt]] claimed that logical deduction was incapable of carrying out concurrent computation in open systems{{fact\|date=January 2011}}.

			Hewitt [1985] and Agha [1991], and other published work argued that mathematical models of concurrency did not determine particular concurrent computations as follows: The Actor model makes use of arbitration (often in the form of notional [[Arbiter (electronics)\|Arbiters]]) for determining which message is next in the [[Actor model theory#Arrival orderings\|arrival ordering]] of an Actor that is sent multiple messages concurrently. This introduces [[Arbiter (electronics)#Arbiters give rise to indeterminacy\|indeterminacy]] in the arrival order. Since the arrival orderings are indeterminate, they cannot be deduced from prior information by mathematical logic alone. Therefore mathematical logic can not implement concurrent computation in open systems.

			The authors note that although mathematical logic cannot, in their view, implement general concurrency it can implement some special cases of concurrent computation, ''e.g.,'' sequential computation and some kinds of [[parallel programming\|parallel]] computation including the [[lambda calculus]].

			==Arrival order indeterminacy==
			According to Hewitt, in concrete terms for Actor systems, typically we cannot observe the details by which the arrival order of messages for an Actor is determined. Attempting to do so affects the results and can even push the indeterminacy elsewhere. e.g., see [[metastability in electronics]] and [[Arbiter (electronics)\|arbiters]]. Instead of observing the internals of arbitration processes of Actor computations, we await outcomes. Indeterminacy in arbiters produces indeterminacy in Actors. The reason that we await outcomes is that we have no alternative because of indeterminacy.

			It is important to be clear about the basis for the published claim about the limitation of mathematical logic. It was not just that Actors could not in general be implemented in mathematical logic. The published claim was that because of the indeterminacy of the physical basis of the Actor model, that no kind of deductive mathematical logic could escape the limitation. This became important later when researchers attempted to extend [[Prolog]] (which had some basis in [[logic programming]]) to concurrent computation using message passing. (See the section below).

			What does the mathematical theory of Actors have to say about this? A ''closed'' system is defined to be one which does not communicate with the outside. [[Actor model theory]] provides the means to characterize all the possible computations of a closed Actor system using the Representation Theorem [Hewitt 2007] as follows:

			:The mathematical denotation denoted by a closed system <tt>S</tt> is found by constructing increasingly better approximations from an initial behavior called <tt>⊥<sub>S</sub></tt> using a behavior approximating function <tt>'''progression'''<sub>S</sub></tt> to construct a denotation (meaning ) for <tt>S</tt> as follows :
			::<tt>'''Denote'''<sub>S</sub> ≡ <math> \lim_{i \to \infty}</math> '''progression'''<sub>S</sub><sup>i</sup>(⊥<sub>S</sub>)</tt>

			In this way, the behavior of <tt>S</tt> can be mathematically characterized in terms of all its possible behaviors (including those involving unbounded nondeterminism).

			So mathematical logic can characterize (as opposed to implement) all the possible computations of a closed Actor system.

			==A limitation of logic due to lack of information==
			An open Actor system <tt>S</tt> is one in which the addresses of outside Actors can be passed into <tt>S</tt> in the middle of computations so that <tt>S<tt> can communicate with these outside Actors. These outside Actors can then in turn communicate with Actors internal to <tt>S</tt> using addresses supplied to them by <tt>S</tt>. Due to limitation of the inability to deduce arrival orderings, knowledge of what messages are sent from outside would not enable the response of <tt>S</tt> to be deduced.
			When other models of concurrent systems ( ''e.g.,'' [[process calculi]]) are used to implement open systems, these systems also can have behavior that depends on arrival time orderings and so cannot be implemented by logical deduction.

			==Prolog-like concurrent systems were claimed to be based on mathematical logic==
			[[Keith Clark]], Hervé Gallaire, Steve Gregory, Vijay Saraswat, Udi Shapiro, Kazunori Ueda, etc. developed a family of [[Prolog]]-like concurrent message passing systems using unification of shared variables and data structure streams for messages. Claims were made that these systems were based on mathematical logic.{{Fact\|date=March 2007}} This kind of system was used as the basis of the [[Fifth generation computer\|Japanese Fifth Generation Project (ICOT)]].

			Carl Hewitt and Gul Agha [1991] argued that these Prolog-like concurrent systems were neither deductive nor logical: like the Actor model, the Prolog-like concurrent systems were based on message passing and consequently were subject to the same indeterminacy.

			==Logical operations and system efficiency==
			Hewitt maintained that a basic lesson can be learned from Prolog and the Prolog-like concurrent systems: a universal model of concurrent computation is limited by having any mandatory overhead in the basic communication mechanisms. This is an argument against including pattern-directed invocation using unification and extraction of messages from data structure streams as fundamental primitives. But compare Shapiro's survey of Prolog-like concurrent programming languages for arguments for inclusion.

			==Indeterminacy in other models of computation==
			Arbitration is the basis of the indeterminacy in the [[Actor model]] of concurrent computation (see [[Actor model early history]] and [[Actor model theory]]). It may also play a role in other models of concurrent systems such as [[process calculi]].

			==See also==
			*[[Quantum computer]]
			*[[Randomized algorithm]]
			*[[Nondeterministic Turing machine]]

			==References==
			*[[Carl Hewitt]] [http://what-is-computation.carlhewitt.info ''What is computation? Actor Model versus Turing's Model''] in A Computable Universe: Understanding Computation & Exploring Nature as Computation. Dedicated to the memory of Alan M. Turing on the 100th anniversary of his birth. Edited by Hector Zenil. World Scientific Publishing Company. 2012
			*Carl Hewitt. '''PLANNER: A Language for Proving Theorems in Robots''' [[IJCAI]] 1969.
			*Carl Hewitt. '''Procedural Embedding of Knowledge In Planner''' IJCAI 1971.
			*Carl Hewitt, Peter Bishop and Richard Steiger. '''A Universal Modular Actor Formalism for Artificial Intelligence''' IJCAI 1973.
			*[[Robert Kowalski]] '''Predicate Logic as Programming Language''' Memo 70, Department of Artificial Intelligence, [[Edinburgh University]]. 1973.
			*Pat Hayes. '''Computation and Deduction''' Mathematical Foundations of Computer Science: Proceedings of Symposium and Summer School, Štrbské Pleso, High Tatras, Czechoslovakia, September 3-8, 1973.
			*Carl Hewitt and [[Henry Baker (computer scientist)\|Henry Baker]] '''Laws for Communicating Parallel Processes''' IFIP-77, August 1977.
			*Carl Hewitt. '''Viewing Control Structures as Patterns of Passing Messages''' [[Journal of Artificial Intelligence]]. June 1977.
			*Henry Baker. '''Actor Systems for Real-Time Computation''' MIT EECS Doctoral Dissertation. January 1978.
			*Bill Kornfeld and Carl Hewitt. '''The Scientific Community Metaphor''' [[IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics]]. January 1981.
			*Will Clinger. '''Foundations of Actor Semantics''' [[MIT]] Mathematics Doctoral Dissertation. June 1981.
			*Carl Hewitt. '''The Challenge of Open Systems''' Byte Magazine. April 1985. Reprinted in ''The foundation of artificial intelligence---a sourcebook'' Cambridge University Press. 1990.
			*Gul Agha. '''[https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/6952 Actors: A Model of Concurrent Computation in Distributed Systems]''' Doctoral Dissertation. MIT Press. 1986.
			*Robert Kowalski. '''The limitation of logic''' Proceedings of the 1986 ACM 14th Annual Conference on Computer science.
			*Ehud Shapiro (Editor). '''Concurrent Prolog''' [[MIT Press]]. 1987.
			*Robert Kowalski. '''The Early Years of Logic Programming''' [[Communications of the ACM]]. January 1988.
			*Ehud Shapiro. '''The family of concurrent logic programming languages''' [[ACM Computing Surveys]]. September 1989.
			*Carl Hewitt and Gul Agha. '''Guarded Horn clause languages: are they deductive and Logical?''' International Conference on Fifth Generation Computer Systems, Ohmsha 1988. Tokyo. Also in ''Artificial Intelligence at MIT'', Vol. 2. MIT Press 1991.
			Carl Hewitt. Carl Hewitt. '''The repeated demise of logic programming and why it will be reincarnated''' What Went Wrong and Why: Lessons from AI Research and Applications. Technical Report SS-06-08. AAAI Press. March 2006.

			== External links ==
			* [http://channel9.msdn.com/Shows/Going+Deep/Hewitt-Meijer-and-Szyperski-The-Actor-Model-everything-you-wanted-to-know-but-were-afraid-to-ask Hewitt, Meijer and Szyperski: The Actor Model (everything you wanted to know, but were afraid to ask)] Microsoft Channel 9. April 9, 2012.

			[[Category:Actor model]]
			[[Category:Logic programming]]
			[[Category:Determinism]]

68.62.211.196: /* Einstein's hole argument */

2012-06-07T03:43:03Z

Einstein's hole argument

New page

The writer's title is Christy Brookins. To perform lacross is the thing I love most of all. North Carolina is the location he enjoys most but now he is considering other options. Office supervising is my profession.<br><br>my blog; clairvoyance - [http://mybrandcp.com/xe/board_XmDx25/107997 click through the next web page] -