Loschmidt constant - Revision history

92.151.205.43: It is very confusing indeed, but it is actually used in this way sometimes.

2014-10-24T13:00:04Z

It is very confusing indeed, but it is actually used in this way sometimes.

← Older revision		Revision as of 15:00, 24 October 2014
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	~~In [[abstract algebra]], a '''residuated lattice''' is an [[algebraic structure]] that~~ is simultaneously a [[lattice (order)\|lattice]] ''x'' ≤ ''y'' and a [[monoid]] ''x''•''y'' which admits operations ''x''\''z'' and ''z''/''y'' loosely analogous to division or implication when ''x''•''y'' is viewed as multiplication or conjunction respectively. Called respectively right and left residuals, these operations coincide when the monoid is commutative. The general concept was introduced by Ward and Dilworth in 1939. Examples, some of which existed prior to the general concept, include [[Boolean algebra (structure)\|Boolean algebra]]s, [[Heyting algebra]]s, [[residuated Boolean algebra]]s, [[relation algebra]]s, and [[MV-algebra]]s. [[Residuated semilattice#Residuated semilattice\|Residuated semilattices]] omit the meet operation &and;, for example [[Kleene algebra]]s and [[action algebra]]s.		Wilber Berryhill is what his spouse enjoys to call him and he completely loves this title. She functions as a journey agent but soon she'll be on her personal. To climb is some thing I really appreciate doing. For many years she's been residing in Kentucky but her husband desires them to move.<br><br>Here is my homepage - free online tarot card readings ([http://www.indosfriends.com/profile-253/info/ try these guys])

	~~==Definition==~~

	~~In [[mathematics]], a '''residuated lattice''' is an [[algebraic structure]] '''L''' = (''L'', ≤, •, '''I''') such that~~
	~~: (i) (''L'', ≤) is a [[lattice (order)\|lattice]].~~
	~~: (ii) (''L'', •, '''I''') is a [[monoid]].~~
	~~:(iii) For all ''z'' there exists for every ''x'' a greatest ''y'', and for every ''y'' a greatest ''x'', such that ''x''•''y'' ≤ ''z'' (the residuation properties).~~

	~~In (iii), the "greatest ''y''", being a function of ''z'' and ''x'', is denoted ''x''\''z'' and called the '''right residual''' of ''z'' by ''x'', thinking of it as~~ what remains of ''z'' on the right after "dividing" ''z'' on the left by ''x''. Dually the "greatest ''x''" is denoted ''z''/''y'' and called the '''left residual''' of ''z'' by ''y''. An equivalent more formal statement of (iii) that uses these operations to name these greatest values is

	~~(iii)' for all ''x'', ''y'', ''z'' in ''L'',   ''y'' ≤ ''x''\''z''   ⇔   ''x''•''y'' ≤ ''z''   ⇔   ''x'' ≤ ''z''/''y''.~~

	As suggested by the notation the residuals are a form of quotient. More precisely, for a given ''x'' in ''L'', the unary operations ''x''• and ''x''\ are respectively the lower and upper adjoints of a [[Galois connection]] on '''L''', and dually for the two functions •''y'' and /''y''. By the same reasoning that applies to ~~any Galois connection, we have yet another definition of the residuals, namely,~~
	~~:''x''•(''x''\''y'') ≤ ''y'' ≤ ''x''\(''x''•''y''),~~ and
	~~:(''y''/''x'')•''x'' ≤ ''y'' ≤ (''y''•''x'')/''x'',~~

	~~together with the requirement that ''x''•''y'' be monotone in ''x'' and ''y''~~. ~~(When axiomatized using (iii) or (iii)' monotonicity becomes a theorem and hence not required in the axiomatization.) These give a sense in which the~~ functions ~~''x''• and ''x''\ are pseudoinverses or adjoints of each other, and likewise for •''x'' and /''x''.~~

	~~This last definition is purely in terms of inequalities, noting that monotonicity can be axiomatized~~ as ''x''•''y'' ≤ (''x''&or;''z'')•''y'' and similarly for the other operations and their arguments. Moreover any inequality ''x'' ≤ ''y'' can be expressed equivalently as an equation, either ''x''&and;''y'' = ''x'' or ''x''&or;''y'' = ''y''. This along with the equations axiomatizing lattices and monoids then yields a purely equational definition of residuated lattices, provided the requisite operations are adjoined to the signature (''L'', ≤, •, '''I''') thereby expanding it to (''L'', &and;, &or;, •, '''I''', /, \). When thus organized, residuated lattices form an equational class or [[Variety (universal algebra)\|variety]], whose homomorphisms respect the residuals as well as the lattice and monoid operations. Note that distributivity ''x''•(''y''&or;''z'') = (''x''•''y'') &or; (''x''•''z'') and ''x''~~•0 = 0 are consequences of these axioms and so do not need to~~ be ~~made part of the definition~~. ~~This necessary distributivity of • over &or; does not in general entail distributivity of &and; over &or;, that~~ is~~, a residuated lattice need not be a distributive lattice. However it does do so when • and &and; are the same operation, a special case of residuated lattices called a [[Heyting algebra]].~~

	~~Alternative notations for ''x''•''y'' include ''x''◦''y'', ''x'';''y'' ([[relation algebra]]), and ''x''&otimes;''y'' ([[linear logic]]). Alternatives for '''~~I~~''' include ''e'' and 1'~~. ~~Alternative notations for the residuals are~~ '~~'x'' → ''y'' for ''x''\''y'' and ''y'' ← ''x'' for ''y''/''x'', suggested by the similarity between residuation and implication~~ in logic, with the multiplication of the monoid understood as a form of conjunction that need not be commutative. When the monoid is commutative the two residuals coincide. When not commutative, the intuitive meaning of the monoid as conjunction and the residuals as implications can be understood as having a temporal quality: ''x''•''y'' means ''x'' ''and then'' ''y'',   ''x'' → ''y'' means ''had'' ''x'' (in the past) ''then'' ''y'' (now),   and ''y'' ← ''x'' means ''if-ever'' ''x'' (in the future) ''then'' ''y'' (at that time), as illustrated by the natural language example at the end of the examples.

	~~== Examples ==~~
	One of the original motivations for the study of residuated lattices was the lattice of [[ideal (ring theory)\|ideals]] of a [[ring (mathematics)\|ring]]. Given a ring ''R'', the ideals of ''R'', denoted Id(''R''), forms a complete lattice with set intersection acting as the meet operation and "ideal addition" acting as the join operation. The monoid operation • is given by "ideal multiplication", and the element ''R'' of Id(''R'') acts as the identity for this operation. Given two ideals ''A'' and ''B'' in Id(''R''), the residuals are given by
	~~:<math>A/B:= \{r \in R \mid rB \subseteq A \}\,</math>~~
	~~:<math>B\setminus A:=\{ r \in R \mid Br \subseteq A \}\,</math>~~
	~~It is worth noting that {0}/''B'' and ''B''\{0} are respectively the left and right [[annihilator (ring theory)\|annihilators]] of ''B''. This residuation is related~~ to ~~the ''[[conductor (ring theory)\|conductor]]'' (or ''transporter'') in [[commutative algebra]] written as (''A'':''B'')=''A''/''B''~~. ~~One difference in usage is that ''B'' need not be an ideal of ''R'': it may just be a subset.~~

	[[Boolean algebra (structure)\|Boolean algebra]]s and [[Heyting algebras]] are commutative residuated lattices in which ''x''•''y'' = ''x''&and;''y'' (whence the unit '''I''' is the top element 1 of the algebra) and both residuals ''x''\''y'' and ''y''/''x'' are the same operation, namely implication ''x'' → ''y''. The second example is quite general since Heyting algebras include all finite [[distributive lattice]]s, as well as all chains or [[total order]]s forming a [[complete lattice]], for example the unit interval [0,1] in the real line, or the integers and ±<~~math~~>~~\infty~~<~~/math~~>.

	~~The structure ('''Z''', ''min'', ''max'', +, 0, −, −) (the integers with subtraction for both residuals) is a commutative residuated lattice such that the unit of the monoid~~ is not the greatest element (indeed there is no least or greatest integer), and the multiplication of the monoid is not the meet operation of the lattice. In this example the inequalities are equalities because − (subtraction) is not merely the adjoint or pseudoinverse of + but the true inverse. Any totally ordered group under addition such as the rationals or the reals can be substituted for the integers in this example. The nonnegative portion of any of these examples is an example provided ''min'' and ''max'' are interchanged and − is replaced by [[monus]], defined (in this case) so that ''x''-~~''y'' = 0 when ''x'' ≤ ''y'' and otherwise is ordinary subtraction.~~

	~~A more general class of examples is given by the [[Boolean algebra~~ (~~structure)\|Boolean algebra]] of all [~~[binary relations]] on a set ''X'', namely the power set of ''X''<sup>2</sup>, made a residuated lattice by taking the monoid multiplication • to be composition of relations and the monoid unit to be the identity relation '''I''' on ''X'' consisting of all pairs (''x'',''x'') for ''x'' in ''X''. Given two relations ''R'' and ''S'' on ''X'', the right residual ''R''\''S'' of ''S'' by ''R'' is the binary relation such that ''x''(''R''\''S'')''y'' holds just when for all ''z'' in ''X'', ''zRx'' implies ''zSy'' (notice the connection with implication). The left residual is the mirror image of this: ~~''y''(''S''/''R'')''x'' holds just when for all ''z'' in ''X'', ''xRz'' implies ''ySz''.~~

	This can be illustrated with the binary relations < and > on {0,1} in which 0 < 1 and 1 > 0 are the only relationships that hold. Then ''x''(>\<)''y'' holds just when ''x'' = 1, while ''x''(</>)''y'' holds just when ''y'' = 0, showing that residuation of < by > is different depending on whether we residuate on the right or the left. This difference is a consequence of the difference between <•> and >•<, where the only relationships that hold are 0(<•>)0 (since 0<1>0) and 1(>•<)1 (since 1>0<1). Had we chosen ≤ and ≥ instead of < and >, ≥\≤ and ≤/~~≥ would have been the same because ≤•≥ = ≥•≤, both of which always hold between all ''x'' and ''y'' (since ''x''≤1≥''y'' and ''x''≥0≤''y'')~~.

	The Boolean algebra 2<sup>Σ*</sup> of all [[formal language]]s over an alphabet (set) Σ forms a residuated lattice whose monoid multiplication is language concatenation ''LM'' and whose monoid unit '''I''' is the language {ε} consisting of just the empty string ε. ~~The right residual ''M''\''L'' consists of all words ''w'' over Σ such that ''Mw'' &sube; ''L''. The left residual ''L''~~/~~''M'' is the same with ''wM'' in place of ''Mw''.~~

	The residuated lattice of all binary relations on ''X'' is finite just when ''X'' is finite, and commutative just when ''X'' has at most one element. When ''X'' is empty the algebra is the degenerate Boolean algebra in which 0 = 1 = '''I'''. The residuated lattice of all languages on Σ is commutative just when Σ has at most one letter. It is finite just when Σ is empty, consisting of the two languages 0 (the empty language {}) and the monoid unit '''I''' = {ε} = 1.

	~~The examples forming a Boolean algebra have special properties treated in the article on [[residuated Boolean algebra]]s.~~

	In [[natural language]] residuated lattices formalize the logic of "and" when used with its noncommutative meaning of "and then." Setting ''x'' = ''bet'', ''y'' = ''win'', ''z'' = ''rich'', we can read ''x''•''y'' ≤ ''z'' as "bet and then win entails rich." By the axioms this is equivalent to ''y'' ≤ ''x''→''z'' meaning "win entails had bet then rich", and also to ''x'' ≤ ''z''←''y'' meaning "bet entails if-ever win then rich." Humans readily detect such non-sequiturs as "bet entails had win then rich" and "win entails if-ever bet then rich" as both being equivalent to the wishful thinking "win and then bet entails rich." Humans do not so readily detect that [[Peirce's law]] ((''P''→''Q'')→''P'')→''P'' is a [[tautology (logic)\|tautology]], giving an interesting situation where humans exhibit more proficiency with nonclassical reasoning than classical.

	~~==Residuated semilattice==~~
	~~A '''residuated semilattice''' is defined almost identically for residuated lattices, omitting just the meet operation &and;. Thus it is an [[algebraic structure]] L = (L, ∨, •, 1,~~ /, \) satisfying all the residuated lattice equations as specified above except those containing an occurrence of the symbol &and;. The option of defining ''x'' ≤ ''y'' as ''x''&and;''y'' = ''x'' is then not available, leaving only the other option ''x''&or;''y'' = ''y'' (or any equivalent thereof).

	Any residuated lattice can be made a residuated semilattice simply by omitting &and;. Residuated semilattices arise in connection with [[action algebra]]s, which are residuated semilattices that are also [[Kleene algebra]]s, for which &and; is ordinarily not required.
	~~== References ==~~
	* [[Morgan Ward\|Ward, Morgan]], and [[Robert P. Dilworth]] (1939) "Residuated lattices," ''Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 45'': 335-54. Reprinted in Bogart, K, Freese, R., and Kung, J., eds. (1990) ''The Dilworth Theorems: Selected Papers of R.P. Dilworth'' Basel: Birkhäuser.
	* Nikolaos Galatos, Peter Jipsen, Tomasz Kowalski, and Hiroakira Ono (2007)~~, ''Residuated Lattices. An Algebraic Glimpse at Substructural Logics'', Elsevier, ISBN 978-0-444-52141-5.~~

	~~==See also==~~
	* [[Residuated mapping]]
	* [[Substructural logic]]

	~~[[Category:Lattice theory]]~~
	~~[[Category:Mathematical logic]]~~
	~~[[Category:Fuzzy logic]]~~
	~~[[Category:Ordered algebraic structures]]~~

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2013-02-26T09:30:21Z

Bot: Migrating 8 interwiki links, now provided by Wikidata on d:q903271 (Report Errors)

← Older revision		Revision as of 11:30, 26 February 2013
Line 1:		Line 1:
	~~Andrew Simcox~~ is the ~~name his mothers~~ and ~~fathers gave him~~ and ~~he completely enjoys this name~~. ~~What me~~ and ~~my family adore~~ is ~~performing ballet but~~ I'~~ve been taking on new~~ [~~http~~://~~c045~~.~~danah~~.co.kr/~~home~~/~~index~~.~~php?document_srl~~=~~1356970~~&~~mid~~=~~qna phone psychic~~] ~~issues recently~~. ~~Ohio~~ is ~~exactly where my home~~ is ~~but my husband wants us to transfer~~. ~~Since he was eighteen he~~'~~s been online psychic~~ - [~~http~~://~~Cartoonkorea.com~~/~~ce002~~/~~1093612 Cartoonkorea~~.~~com~~]~~, working~~ as an ~~info officer but he plans on changing~~ it.<br><br>~~My blog psychic readings~~ [[~~http~~://~~165~~.~~132~~.39.93/xe/~~visitors~~/~~372912 http~~:~~//165~~.~~132~~.39.93]]		In [[abstract algebra]], a '''residuated lattice''' is an [[algebraic structure]] that is simultaneously a [[lattice (order)\|lattice]] ''x'' ≤ ''y'' and a [[monoid]] ''x''•''y'' which admits operations ''x''\''z'' and ''z''/''y'' loosely analogous to division or implication when ''x''•''y'' is viewed as multiplication or conjunction respectively. Called respectively right and left residuals, these operations coincide when the monoid is commutative. The general concept was introduced by Ward and Dilworth in 1939. Examples, some of which existed prior to the general concept, include [[Boolean algebra (structure)\|Boolean algebra]]s, [[Heyting algebra]]s, [[residuated Boolean algebra]]s, [[relation algebra]]s, and [[MV-algebra]]s. [[Residuated semilattice#Residuated semilattice\|Residuated semilattices]] omit the meet operation &and;, for example [[Kleene algebra]]s and [[action algebra]]s.

			==Definition==

			In [[mathematics]], a '''residuated lattice''' is an [[algebraic structure]] '''L''' = (''L'', ≤, •, '''I''') such that
			: (i) (''L'', ≤) is a [[lattice (order)\|lattice]].
			: (ii) (''L'', •, '''I''') is a [[monoid]].
			:(iii) For all ''z'' there exists for every ''x'' a greatest ''y'', and for every ''y'' a greatest ''x'', such that ''x''•''y'' ≤ ''z'' (the residuation properties).

			In (iii), the "greatest ''y''", being a function of ''z'' and ''x'', is denoted ''x''\''z'' and called the '''right residual''' of ''z'' by ''x'', thinking of it as what remains of ''z'' on the right after "dividing" ''z'' on the left by ''x''. Dually the "greatest ''x''" is denoted ''z''/''y'' and called the '''left residual''' of ''z'' by ''y''. An equivalent more formal statement of (iii) that uses these operations to name these greatest values is

			(iii)' for all ''x'', ''y'', ''z'' in ''L'',   ''y'' ≤ ''x''\''z''   ⇔   ''x''•''y'' ≤ ''z''   ⇔   ''x'' ≤ ''z''/''y''.

			As suggested by the notation the residuals are a form of quotient. More precisely, for a given ''x'' in ''L'', the unary operations ''x''• and ''x''\ are respectively the lower and upper adjoints of a [[Galois connection]] on '''L''', and dually for the two functions •''y'' and /''y''. By the same reasoning that applies to any Galois connection, we have yet another definition of the residuals, namely,
			:''x''•(''x''\''y'') ≤ ''y'' ≤ ''x''\(''x''•''y''), and
			:(''y''/''x'')•''x'' ≤ ''y'' ≤ (''y''•''x'')/''x'',

			together with the requirement that ''x''•''y'' be monotone in ''x'' and ''y''. (When axiomatized using (iii) or (iii)' monotonicity becomes a theorem and hence not required in the axiomatization.) These give a sense in which the functions ''x''• and ''x''\ are pseudoinverses or adjoints of each other, and likewise for •''x'' and /''x''.

			This last definition is purely in terms of inequalities, noting that monotonicity can be axiomatized as ''x''•''y'' ≤ (''x''&or;''z'')•''y'' and similarly for the other operations and their arguments. Moreover any inequality ''x'' ≤ ''y'' can be expressed equivalently as an equation, either ''x''&and;''y'' = ''x'' or ''x''&or;''y'' = ''y''. This along with the equations axiomatizing lattices and monoids then yields a purely equational definition of residuated lattices, provided the requisite operations are adjoined to the signature (''L'', ≤, •, '''I''') thereby expanding it to (''L'', &and;, &or;, •, '''I''', /, \). When thus organized, residuated lattices form an equational class or [[Variety (universal algebra)\|variety]], whose homomorphisms respect the residuals as well as the lattice and monoid operations. Note that distributivity ''x''•(''y''&or;''z'') = (''x''•''y'') &or; (''x''•''z'') and ''x''•0 = 0 are consequences of these axioms and so do not need to be made part of the definition. This necessary distributivity of • over &or; does not in general entail distributivity of &and; over &or;, that is, a residuated lattice need not be a distributive lattice. However it does do so when • and &and; are the same operation, a special case of residuated lattices called a [[Heyting algebra]].

			Alternative notations for ''x''•''y'' include ''x''◦''y'', ''x'';''y'' ([[relation algebra]]), and ''x''&otimes;''y'' ([[linear logic]]). Alternatives for '''I''' include ''e'' and 1'. Alternative notations for the residuals are ''x'' → ''y'' for ''x''\''y'' and ''y'' ← ''x'' for ''y''/''x'', suggested by the similarity between residuation and implication in logic, with the multiplication of the monoid understood as a form of conjunction that need not be commutative. When the monoid is commutative the two residuals coincide. When not commutative, the intuitive meaning of the monoid as conjunction and the residuals as implications can be understood as having a temporal quality: ''x''•''y'' means ''x'' ''and then'' ''y'',   ''x'' → ''y'' means ''had'' ''x'' (in the past) ''then'' ''y'' (now),   and ''y'' ← ''x'' means ''if-ever'' ''x'' (in the future) ''then'' ''y'' (at that time), as illustrated by the natural language example at the end of the examples.

			== Examples ==
			One of the original motivations for the study of residuated lattices was the lattice of [[ideal (ring theory)\|ideals]] of a [[ring (mathematics)\|ring]]. Given a ring ''R'', the ideals of ''R'', denoted Id(''R''), forms a complete lattice with set intersection acting as the meet operation and "ideal addition" acting as the join operation. The monoid operation • is given by "ideal multiplication", and the element ''R'' of Id(''R'') acts as the identity for this operation. Given two ideals ''A'' and ''B'' in Id(''R''), the residuals are given by
			:<math>A/B:= \{r \in R \mid rB \subseteq A \}\,</math>
			:<math>B\setminus A:=\{ r \in R \mid Br \subseteq A \}\,</math>
			It is worth noting that {0}/''B'' and ''B''\{0} are respectively the left and right [[annihilator (ring theory)\|annihilators]] of ''B''. This residuation is related to the ''[[conductor (ring theory)\|conductor]]'' (or ''transporter'') in [[commutative algebra]] written as (''A'':''B'')=''A''/''B''. One difference in usage is that ''B'' need not be an ideal of ''R'': it may just be a subset.

			[[Boolean algebra (structure)\|Boolean algebra]]s and [[Heyting algebras]] are commutative residuated lattices in which ''x''•''y'' = ''x''&and;''y'' (whence the unit '''I''' is the top element 1 of the algebra) and both residuals ''x''\''y'' and ''y''/''x'' are the same operation, namely implication ''x'' → ''y''. The second example is quite general since Heyting algebras include all finite [[distributive lattice]]s, as well as all chains or [[total order]]s forming a [[complete lattice]], for example the unit interval [0,1] in the real line, or the integers and ±<math>\infty</math>.

			The structure ('''Z''', ''min'', ''max'', +, 0, −, −) (the integers with subtraction for both residuals) is a commutative residuated lattice such that the unit of the monoid is not the greatest element (indeed there is no least or greatest integer), and the multiplication of the monoid is not the meet operation of the lattice. In this example the inequalities are equalities because − (subtraction) is not merely the adjoint or pseudoinverse of + but the true inverse. Any totally ordered group under addition such as the rationals or the reals can be substituted for the integers in this example. The nonnegative portion of any of these examples is an example provided ''min'' and ''max'' are interchanged and − is replaced by [[monus]], defined (in this case) so that ''x''-''y'' = 0 when ''x'' ≤ ''y'' and otherwise is ordinary subtraction.

			A more general class of examples is given by the [[Boolean algebra (structure)\|Boolean algebra]] of all [[binary relations]] on a set ''X'', namely the power set of ''X''<sup>2</sup>, made a residuated lattice by taking the monoid multiplication • to be composition of relations and the monoid unit to be the identity relation '''I''' on ''X'' consisting of all pairs (''x'',''x'') for ''x'' in ''X''. Given two relations ''R'' and ''S'' on ''X'', the right residual ''R''\''S'' of ''S'' by ''R'' is the binary relation such that ''x''(''R''\''S'')''y'' holds just when for all ''z'' in ''X'', ''zRx'' implies ''zSy'' (notice the connection with implication). The left residual is the mirror image of this: ''y''(''S''/''R'')''x'' holds just when for all ''z'' in ''X'', ''xRz'' implies ''ySz''.

			This can be illustrated with the binary relations < and > on {0,1} in which 0 < 1 and 1 > 0 are the only relationships that hold. Then ''x''(>\<)''y'' holds just when ''x'' = 1, while ''x''(</>)''y'' holds just when ''y'' = 0, showing that residuation of < by > is different depending on whether we residuate on the right or the left. This difference is a consequence of the difference between <•> and >•<, where the only relationships that hold are 0(<•>)0 (since 0<1>0) and 1(>•<)1 (since 1>0<1). Had we chosen ≤ and ≥ instead of < and >, ≥\≤ and ≤/≥ would have been the same because ≤•≥ = ≥•≤, both of which always hold between all ''x'' and ''y'' (since ''x''≤1≥''y'' and ''x''≥0≤''y'').

			The Boolean algebra 2<sup>Σ*</sup> of all [[formal language]]s over an alphabet (set) Σ forms a residuated lattice whose monoid multiplication is language concatenation ''LM'' and whose monoid unit '''I''' is the language {ε} consisting of just the empty string ε. The right residual ''M''\''L'' consists of all words ''w'' over Σ such that ''Mw'' &sube; ''L''. The left residual ''L''/''M'' is the same with ''wM'' in place of ''Mw''.

			The residuated lattice of all binary relations on ''X'' is finite just when ''X'' is finite, and commutative just when ''X'' has at most one element. When ''X'' is empty the algebra is the degenerate Boolean algebra in which 0 = 1 = '''I'''. The residuated lattice of all languages on Σ is commutative just when Σ has at most one letter. It is finite just when Σ is empty, consisting of the two languages 0 (the empty language {}) and the monoid unit '''I''' = {ε} = 1.

			The examples forming a Boolean algebra have special properties treated in the article on [[residuated Boolean algebra]]s.

			In [[natural language]] residuated lattices formalize the logic of "and" when used with its noncommutative meaning of "and then." Setting ''x'' = ''bet'', ''y'' = ''win'', ''z'' = ''rich'', we can read ''x''•''y'' ≤ ''z'' as "bet and then win entails rich." By the axioms this is equivalent to ''y'' ≤ ''x''→''z'' meaning "win entails had bet then rich", and also to ''x'' ≤ ''z''←''y'' meaning "bet entails if-ever win then rich." Humans readily detect such non-sequiturs as "bet entails had win then rich" and "win entails if-ever bet then rich" as both being equivalent to the wishful thinking "win and then bet entails rich." Humans do not so readily detect that [[Peirce's law]] ((''P''→''Q'')→''P'')→''P'' is a [[tautology (logic)\|tautology]], giving an interesting situation where humans exhibit more proficiency with nonclassical reasoning than classical.

			==Residuated semilattice==
			A '''residuated semilattice''' is defined almost identically for residuated lattices, omitting just the meet operation &and;. Thus it is an [[algebraic structure]] L = (L, ∨, •, 1, /, \) satisfying all the residuated lattice equations as specified above except those containing an occurrence of the symbol &and;. The option of defining ''x'' ≤ ''y'' as ''x''&and;''y'' = ''x'' is then not available, leaving only the other option ''x''&or;''y'' = ''y'' (or any equivalent thereof).

			Any residuated lattice can be made a residuated semilattice simply by omitting &and;. Residuated semilattices arise in connection with [[action algebra]]s, which are residuated semilattices that are also [[Kleene algebra]]s, for which &and; is ordinarily not required.
			== References ==
			* [[Morgan Ward\|Ward, Morgan]], and [[Robert P. Dilworth]] (1939) "Residuated lattices," ''Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 45'': 335-54. Reprinted in Bogart, K, Freese, R., and Kung, J., eds. (1990) ''The Dilworth Theorems: Selected Papers of R.P. Dilworth'' Basel: Birkhäuser.
			* Nikolaos Galatos, Peter Jipsen, Tomasz Kowalski, and Hiroakira Ono (2007), ''Residuated Lattices. An Algebraic Glimpse at Substructural Logics'', Elsevier, ISBN 978-0-444-52141-5.

			==See also==
			* [[Residuated mapping]]
			* [[Substructural logic]]

			[[Category:Lattice theory]]
			[[Category:Mathematical logic]]
			[[Category:Fuzzy logic]]
			[[Category:Ordered algebraic structures]]

128.214.198.80 at 14:30, 17 February 2012

2012-02-17T14:30:30Z

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Andrew Simcox is the name his mothers and fathers gave him and he completely enjoys this name. What me and my family adore is performing ballet but I've been taking on new [http://c045.danah.co.kr/home/index.php?document_srl=1356970&mid=qna phone psychic] issues recently. Ohio is exactly where my home is but my husband wants us to transfer. Since he was eighteen he's been online psychic - [http://Cartoonkorea.com/ce002/1093612 Cartoonkorea.com], working as an info officer but he plans on changing it.<br><br>My blog psychic readings [[http://165.132.39.93/xe/visitors/372912 http://165.132.39.93]]