Orchestrated objective reduction - Revision history

en>Depthdiver: /* Criticism */ removed emotive language

2014-12-05T04:22:53Z

Criticism: removed emotive language

← Older revision		Revision as of 06:22, 5 December 2014
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	Earlier than you ~~decide~~ whether ~~stainless~~ steel cookware is ~~price buying~~, lets first ~~talk about~~ what chrome steel cookware is. ~~Stainless-~~steel is ~~made~~ from an alloy, or a ~~mixture~~ of metals. ~~Most commonly~~, ~~fundamental~~ iron with chromium, nickel or some other minor metals. The chromium ~~gives~~ rust safety and ~~gives~~ your cookware sturdiness. The nickel ~~provides~~ rust protection as ~~well~~, and ~~provides~~ a ~~cultured~~ look. Most ~~properly~~ made ~~stainless-~~steel cookware has copper or aluminum added to the ~~bottom~~ of the pan or pot. ~~That~~ is ~~completed~~ to increases the power of the pot or pan to conduct ~~warmth~~.<br>The most effective chrome steel cookware is the ~~primary category~~, however still it's divided into ~~a number of~~ subcategories based mostly on the ~~standard~~ and the ~~value range~~. It may be ~~complicated~~ to decide on the best stainless-steel cookware out of the categories that will meet your necessities. ~~That~~ is the place we took a step forward to ~~explain~~ you all the ~~data~~ that will be ~~helpful~~ for you to ~~know the way~~ to ~~choose~~ the ~~best~~ stainless-steel cookware. ~~The~~ best chrome steel cookware set is manufactured from ~~low cost~~ to expensive and quality constructed pots and pans. <br>You ~~can see~~ magnetic stainless-steel ~~within~~ the layer on the ~~skin~~ of some ~~high~~ quality pieces of ~~stainless~~ steel. ~~This~~ is to make it ~~appropriate~~ with induction stovetops, which contain using a ~~quickly~~ charging electromagnetic ~~subject~~ to ~~heat~~ cookware. ~~High~~-quality stainless-steel, like All-Clad , makes use of three layers of metal—the austenite layer of steel on the ~~inside~~, ferrite ~~metal~~ on the skin, and a layer of aluminum sandwiched between the 2 for ~~optimum heat~~ conductivity (metal alone doesn't conduct ~~heat~~ evenly). Lesser-quality stainless steel is ~~often~~ only one layer of austenitic ~~stainless-~~steel.<br>Aesthetically talking, ~~stainless~~ steel is a ~~smart selection when~~ you ~~desire~~ to ~~display~~ or ~~cling~~ pots or pans. The ~~clean~~, crisp look of all ~~stainless-~~steel kitchenware can ~~remodel~~ a mishmash of cookware into a ~~complicated~~ décor ~~assertion~~. Stainless steel kettles, such as the Cuisinart Tea Kettle will mix ~~particular person~~ kitchenware into a cohesive and pleasant entity. ~~Consider~~ purchasing stainless steel utensils as ~~well~~. Already acquired a ~~stunning chrome~~ steel cookware ~~collection~~? The Cuisinart Chef’s ~~Assortment~~ stainless pot rack may be the final touch for a kitchen, ~~releasing~~ up ~~house~~ and making those pots and pans readily accessible. Get the stainless-steel cookware of your culinary ~~desires~~ at Macy’s!<br>~~Exhausting~~-anodized aluminum cookware is without doubt one of the most popular ~~kinds~~ of ~~materials~~, ~~even though~~ many ~~people~~ don't quite ~~understand~~ the construction. ~~Laborious~~-anodized aluminum is ~~obvious~~ aluminum that has been processed in a series of chemical baths charged with an electric ~~current~~. The result is a material that has the ~~identical~~ superior ~~warmth~~ conductivity as aluminum but is non-reactive with acidic foods, ~~akin to~~ tomatoes, and twice as ~~arduous~~ as stainless-steel. Two drawbacks to ~~exhausting~~-anodized cookware are that it isn't dishwasher-~~protected~~ and, ~~as a result of~~ it ~~is not~~ magnetic, it ~~won't~~ work with induction ~~vary~~ tops.<br>If you have any issues relating to where by and how to use [http://cookwarehq.drupalgardens.com/best-stainless-steel-cookware-top-reviews-2014 best stainless steel cookware], you can speak to us at our own web site. The enamel over steel technique creates a bit that has the ~~warmth~~ distribution of carbon ~~metal~~ and a non-reactive, low-stick floor. Such pots are ~~much~~ lighter than most different pots of similar ~~size~~, are cheaper to make than stainless-steel pots, and do not need the rust and reactivity ~~issues of cast~~ iron or carbon steel. citation wanted Enamel over ~~metal~~ is ~~right~~ for big stockpots and for ~~different massive~~ pans used ~~mostly~~ for water-based ~~mostly~~ cooking. Due to its mild weight and ~~simple~~ cleanup, enamel over metal is also ~~widespread~~ for cookware used ~~whereas tenting~~. Clad aluminium or copper edit<br>Distinctive specialty cookware items served a la carte to ~~compliment~~ any cookware set are constructed of a sturdy Stainless Steel with a brushed exterior end. Designed with an affect bonded, aluminum disk encapsulated base which distributes ~~heat~~ rapidly and evenly to allow ~~precise~~ temperature control. Handles are riveted for ~~durability~~ and ~~performance~~. The New Specialty Cookware is suitable for all ~~vary~~ varieties ~~together with~~ induction. ~~Along with~~ the multi use ~~perform~~, another distinctive ~~function~~ is ~~bottom~~ to ~~top inside volume~~ markings in ~~each~~ quarts and metric measurement; and ~~each piece~~ comes with a tempered glass lid, oven protected to 350°F.<br>Whether or not you~~'re~~ a cooking ~~lovers~~, a professional chef or ~~just~~ cooking for your ~~loved ones~~ you ~~understand~~ the ~~significance~~ of ~~having~~ a ~~fully~~ stocked kitchen. Not ~~only~~ do you need the ~~precise components~~, ~~however~~ you ~~also~~ need the ~~appropriate~~ instruments to get the job ~~achieved~~. In any ~~sort~~ of ~~fundamental~~ cooking coaching lesson, you ~~will~~ learn that ~~stainless~~ steel is your new ~~greatest~~ friend ~~on the subject of~~ kitchen cookware. What additionally, you will learn is that quality cooking ~~equipment~~ does not ~~usually~~ come at a reduced ~~price~~. For that reason, it is ~~very~~ important take ~~good~~ care of your cookware! ~~Here~~ are some basics for stainless-steel care. <br>To ~~fight~~ the uneven heating ~~drawback~~, most ~~chrome~~ steel pans are laminations of aluminum or copper on the underside to unfold the warmth round, and stainless steel ~~inside~~ the pan to ~~offer~~ a cooking surface that is impervious to ~~whatever~~ you ~~would possibly~~ put inside. In my ~~experience~~, this ~~chrome~~ steel surface remains to be too sticky to fry on, and ~~should~~ you ever burn it you get a ~~everlasting~~ trouble spot. ~~However~~, ~~typically~~ a chrome steel cooking floor is useful when you may't use aluminum (see ~~beneath~~) so I preserve some around. ~~Choose~~ one thing with a fairly thick aluminum layer on the underside.<br>~~Properly~~, ~~unless~~ you’re a metals ~~expert~~ and go inspect the ~~factory~~ where the steel is made to see whether or not or not their manufacturing ~~process~~ creates a pure austenite without corrosive ~~materials fashioned~~, you’re not going to know for ~~positive~~ whether or not the craftsmanship of your stainless is of the ~~highest~~ quality. I think your finest ~~wager~~ is to easily ~~purchase high~~-quality stainless-steel from the start, from a ~~model~~ with a ~~status~~ for good quality. ~~However~~, I believe I ~~have discovered one way~~ that you may ~~determine~~ if the stainless cookware you already have is doubtlessly reactive.		Earlier than you determine whether chrome steel cookware is value shopping for, lets first focus on what chrome steel cookware is. Chrome steel is manufactured from an alloy, or a combination of metals. Mostly, basic iron with chromium, nickel or some other minor metals. The chromium provides rust safety and provides your cookware sturdiness. The nickel offers rust protection as effectively, and adds a polished look. Most effectively made chrome steel cookware has copper or aluminum added to the underside of the pan or pot. This is finished to increases the power of the pot or pan to conduct heat.<br>The most effective chrome steel cookware is the main class, however still it's divided into several subcategories based mostly on the quality and the worth vary. It may be confusing to decide on the [http://cookwarehq.drupalgardens.com/best-stainless-steel-cookware-top-reviews-2014 best stainless steel cookware] out of the categories that will meet your necessities. This is the place we took a step forward to elucidate you all the knowledge that will be useful for you to understand how to decide on the perfect stainless steel cookware. One of the best chrome steel cookware set is manufactured from cheap to expensive and high quality constructed pots and pans. <br>You'll find magnetic stainless steel in the layer on the outside of some quality pieces of chrome steel. That is to make it compatible with induction stovetops, which contain using a rapidly charging electromagnetic discipline to warmth cookware. Excessive-quality stainless-steel, like All-Clad , makes use of three layers of metal—the austenite layer of steel on the within, ferrite steel on the skin, and a layer of aluminum sandwiched between the two for optimal warmth conductivity (metal alone doesn't conduct warmth evenly). Lesser-quality stainless steel is usually only one layer of austenitic chrome steel.<br>Aesthetically talking, chrome steel is a wise alternative if you choose to show or hold pots or pans. The clear, crisp look of all chrome steel kitchenware can transform a mishmash of cookware into a sophisticated décor statement. Stainless steel kettles, such as the Cuisinart Tea Kettle will mix individual kitchenware into a cohesive and pleasant entity. Contemplate purchasing stainless-steel utensils as properly. Already acquired a beautiful stainless-steel cookware assortment? The Cuisinart Chef’s Collection stainless pot rack may be the final touch for a kitchen, freeing up space and making those pots and pans readily accessible. Get the stainless steel cookware of your culinary dreams at Macy’s!<br>Laborious-anodized aluminum cookware is without doubt one of the most popular forms of material, although many individuals don't quite perceive the construction. Arduous-anodized aluminum is plain aluminum that has been processed in a series of chemical baths charged with an electric present. The result is a material that has the same superior heat conductivity as aluminum but is non-reactive with acidic foods, such as tomatoes, and twice as hard as stainless-steel. Two drawbacks to onerous-anodized cookware are that it isn't dishwasher-secure and, because it isn't magnetic, it will not work with induction range tops.<br>The enamel over steel technique creates a bit that has the heat distribution of carbon steel and a non-reactive, low-stick floor. Such pots are a lot lighter than most different pots of similar dimension, are cheaper to make than stainless-steel pots, and do not need the rust and reactivity problems with forged iron or carbon steel. citation wanted Enamel over steel is good for big stockpots and for other giant pans used largely for water-based cooking. Due to its mild weight and straightforward cleanup, enamel over metal is also standard for cookware used while camping. Clad aluminium or copper edit<br>Distinctive specialty cookware items served a la carte to go with any cookware set are constructed of a sturdy Stainless Steel with a brushed exterior end. Designed with an affect bonded, aluminum disk encapsulated base which distributes warmth rapidly and evenly to allow exact temperature control. Handles are riveted for sturdiness and efficiency. The New Specialty Cookware is suitable for all range varieties including induction. In addition to the multi use operate, another distinctive feature is backside to high interior quantity markings in both quarts and metric measurement; and every bit comes with a tempered glass lid, oven protected to 350°F.<br>Whether or not you are a cooking fanatics, a professional chef or simply cooking for your family you know the importance of getting a totally stocked kitchen. Not solely do you need the appropriate ingredients, but you additionally need the best instruments to get the job executed. In any kind of primary cooking coaching lesson, you'll learn that chrome steel is your new best friend with regards to kitchen cookware. What additionally, you will learn is that quality cooking gear does not often come at a reduced value. For that reason, it is important to take excellent care of your cookware! Listed below are some basics for stainless steel care. <br>To combat the uneven heating downside, most stainless-steel pans are laminations of aluminum or copper on the underside to unfold the warmth round, and stainless steel contained in the pan to supply a cooking surface that is impervious to no matter you might put inside. In my expertise, this stainless-steel surface remains to be too sticky to fry on, and in the event you ever burn it you get a permanent trouble spot. But, generally a chrome steel cooking floor turns out to be useful when you may't use aluminum (see below) so I preserve some around. Select one thing with a fairly thick aluminum layer on the underside.<br>Well, except you’re a metals knowledgeable and go inspect the manufacturing facility where the steel is made to see whether or not or not their manufacturing course of creates a pure austenite without corrosive supplies formed, you’re not going to know for certain whether or not or not the craftsmanship of your stainless is of the very best high quality. I think your finest bet is to easily buy excessive-quality stainless steel from the start, from a brand with a reputation for good high quality. But, I believe I've figured out a technique that you may decide if the stainless cookware you already have is doubtlessly reactive.

en>Michael Hardy: A huge number of glaringly obvious punctuation corrections required by WP:MOS.

2014-02-27T04:05:08Z

A huge number of glaringly obvious punctuation corrections required by WP:MOS.

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en>Nealmcb: include Bandyopadhyay and one more cite

2014-02-01T23:14:17Z

include Bandyopadhyay and one more cite

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In [[electrical and electronic engineering]], the '''power rating''' of a device is a guideline set by the manufacturer as a maximum [[Electric power|power]] to be used with that device. This limit is usually set somewhat lower than the level where the device will be damaged, to allow a margin of [[safety]].

In devices which primarily dissipate electric power or convert it into mechanical power, such as [[resistor]]s, [[electric motor]]s, and [[Loudspeaker|speaker]]s, the power rating given is usually the maximum power that can be safely dissipated by the device. The usual reason for this limit is [[heat]], although in certain [[electromechanical]] devices, particularly speakers, it is to prevent mechanical damage. When heat is the limiting factor, the power rating is easily calculated. First, the amount of heat that can be safely dissipated by the device, <math>P_{D,max}</math>, must be calculated. This is related to the maximum safe operating [[temperature]], the ambient temperature or temperature range in which the device will be operated, and the method of [[Thermal management of electronic devices and systems|cooling]]. If <math>T_{D,max}</math> is the maximum safe [[operating temperature]] of the device, <math>T_{A}</math> is the ambient temperature, and <math>\theta_{DA}</math> is the total [[thermal resistance]] between the device and ambient, then the maximum heat dissipation is given by
:<math>P_{D,max} = \frac{T_{D,max} - T_{A}}{\theta_{DA}}</math>
If all power in a device is dissipated as heat, then this is also the power rating. On the other hand, if most of the power is converted into mechanical power, then we need to know the efficiency, <math>\eta</math>. Then, the power rating is given by
:<math>P_{max} = \frac{P_{D,max}}{1 - \eta}</math>
Note that this is the real or [[effective power]] dissipated in the device.

In devices that primarily [[Power converter|convert]] between different forms of electric power, such as [[transformer]]s, or transport it from one location to another, such as [[transmission line]]s, the power rating almost always refers to the maximum power flow through the device, not dissipation within it. The usual reason for the limit is heat, and the maximum heat dissipation is calculated as above.

Power ratings are usually given in [[watt]]s for real power and [[volt-ampere]]s for apparent power, although for devices intended for use in large power systems, both may be given in a [[per-unit system]]. As the power rating depends on the method of cooling, different ratings may be specified for air cooling, water cooling, etc.

Exceeding the power rating of a device by more than the margin of safety set by the manufacturer usually does damage to the device by causing its operating temperature to exceed safe levels. In [[semiconductor]]s, irreparable damage can occur very quickly. Exceeding the power rating of most devices for a very short period of time is not harmful, although doing so regularly can sometimes cause cumulative damage.

Power ratings for electrical apparatus and transmission lines are a function of the duration of the proposed load and the ambient temperature; a transmission line or transformer, for example, can carry significantly more load in cold weather than in hot weather. Momentary overloads, causing high temperatures and deterioration of insulation, may be considered an acceptable trade-off in emergency situations. The power rating of switching devices varies depending on the circuit voltage as well as the current. In certain aerospace or military applications, a device may carry a much higher rating than would be accepted in devices intended to operate for long service life.

==Audio amplifiers==
[[Audio amplifier]] power ratings are typically established by driving the device under test to the onset of [[Clipping (audio)|clipping]], to a predetermined distortion level, variable per manufacturer or per product line. Driving an amplifier to 1% distortion levels will yield a higher rating than driving it to 0.01% distortion levels.<ref name=Quilter>Quilter, Patrick (2004). [http://soundandsong.com/Issue004/004_PowerAmpRatings.html "How to Compare Amplifier Power Ratings."] ''Sound and Song''. Retrieveded on March 18, 2010.</ref> Similarly, testing an amplifier at a single mid-range frequency, or testing just one channel of a two-channel amplifier, will yield a higher rating than if it is tested throughout its intended frequency range with both channels working. Manufacturers can use these methods to market amplifiers whose published maximum power output includes some amount of clipping in order to show higher numbers.<ref name=Quilter/> For instance, the [[Federal Trade Commission]] (FTC) established an amplifier rating system in which the device is tested with both channels driven throughout its advertised frequency range, at no more than its published distortion level. The [[Electronic Industries Association]] (EIA) rating system, however, determines amplifier power by measuring a single channel at 1,000 Hz, with a 1% distortion level—1% clipping. Using the EIA method rates an amplifier 10 to 20% higher than the FTC method.<ref name=Quilter/>

== Maximum continuous rating (MCR) ==
'''Maximum continuous rating (MCR)''' is defined as the maximum output (MW) that a generating station {{Clarify|date=February 2009}} is capable of producing continuously under normal conditions over a year. Under ideal conditions, the actual output could be higher than the MCR.<ref>[http://www.ieso.ca/imoweb/marketdata/genDisclosure.asp IESO]</ref>

Within [[shipping]], ships usually operates at the [[nominal continuous rating]] (NCR) which is 85% of the 90% of MCR. The 90% MCR is usually the contractual output for which the propeller is designed. Thus, the usual output at which ships are operated is around 75% to 77% of MCR.<ref>Danish proposal to a design CO2 index for new ships to the UN’s International Maritime Organization (IMO) from the [http://www.dma.dk/sw22623.asp Danish Maritime Authority]</ref>

== Measurement of nominal power and efficiency of photovoltaic modules==
{{Main|Watt peak}}

The nominal power of a photovoltaic module is determined by measuring current and voltage while varying resistance under defined illumination. The conditions are specified in standards such as IEC 61215, IEC 61646 and UL 1703; specifically the light intensity is 1000W/m2, with a spectrum similar to sunlight hitting the earth's surface at latitude 35°N in the summer ([[airmass]] 1.5) and temperature of the cells at 25°C. The power is measured while varying the resistive load on the module between open and closed circuit. The maximum power measured is the nominal power of the module in '''W'''. Colloquial this is also written as '''"Wp"'''. Colloquial, as it is outside the standard to add suffixes to [[International System of Units|standardized units]]. The nominal power divided by the light power that falls on the module (area x 1000W/m2) is the''' efficiency'''.

== Historic ==

=== Nominal power in radiostations output ===
'''Nominal power''' is a measurement of a [[mediumwave]] [[radio station]]'s output used in the [[United States]]. AM broadcasters are licensed by the [[Federal Communications Commission]] to operate at a specific [[Real versus nominal value|nominal]] [[power (physics)|power]], which may be (and usually is) different from the [[transmitter power output]].

* For [[omnidirectional antenna|non-directional]] stations, nominal power is normally equal to the [[Radio frequency|RF]] power presented to the antenna, as determined from the base [[electrical current|current]] and the antenna's nominal [[Electrical impedance|impedance]] at the [[carrier wave|carrier]] frequency.
* For [[directional antenna|directional]] stations, nominal power is normally equal to the RF power at the [[common point]] (the point at which the transmitter output branches off into separate [[phasing network]]s for each tower).

In both cases, nominal power excludes losses in transmission lines between the tower or [[phasor]] and the transmitter; however, it ''includes'' losses in a [[resistor network]] used to decrease the efficiency of the antenna system.

Nominal power is ultimately a historical artifact of the regulatory regime employed by the FCC prior to the 1980s. In the old system, rather than allowing licensees to choose any power level which would meet the efficiency and [[Interference (communication)|interference]] standards for their class, stations were restricted to a small set of power levels: 50, 100, 250, 500, 1000, 2500, 5000, 10000, 25000, and 50000 [[watt]]s. A station whose maximum coverage would otherwise be available at 4500 watts (given a specific directional pattern and antenna system efficiency) had a choice of either living with 2500 watts, or reducing the antenna efficiency to a level which would allow for 5 kW. Newly constructed stations could fairly easily design an antenna system to meet the requirements, but stations on or moving to a shared tower with higher efficiency had a problem. The resistor network exception was created to allow stations to reduce their antenna efficiency without having to modify the existing tower.

Rule changes in the 1980s did away with the fixed set of power choices, allowing stations to choose an appropriate power level for their antenna system ("dial-a-power"), so there should no longer be any need for the concept of nominal power. However, stations still take advantage of the resistor exception in some cases, simply because they perceive the marketing advantage of higher power (or at least "round" power) to be worth the cost of the wasted energy.

==See also==
*[[Effective radiated power]], the regulatory analogue for [[very high frequency|VHF]] and [[ultra high frequency|UHF]] broadcasting.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Power Rating}}
[[Category:Electrical parameters]]