Turing machine equivalents - Revision history

202.92.146.128: /* Machines with input and output */, corrected typo of Papadimitriou's name

2014-10-29T05:05:01Z

Machines with input and output: , corrected typo of Papadimitriou's name

← Older revision		Revision as of 07:05, 29 October 2014
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	The ~~term~~ '~~''beta diversity''' (β-diversity) was introduced by R. H. Whittaker<ref~~ name=Whittaker1960>Whittaker, R. H. (1960) Vegetation of the Siskiyou Mountains, Oregon and California. Ecological Monographs, 30, 279–338.</ref> together with the terms [[alpha diversity]] (α-diversity) and [[gamma diversity]] (γ-diversity). The idea was that the total [[species diversity]] in a landscape (γ) is ~~determined by two different things, the mean species diversity at the habitat level (α)~~ and the differentiation among habitats (β). Whittaker proposed several ways of quantifying differentiation, and subsequent generations of ecologists have invented more. As a result, the definition of beta diversity has become quite ~~contentious~~.~~<ref name=Tuomisto2010a>Tuomisto, H. (2010) A diversity of beta diversities: straightening up a concept gone awry. Part 1. Defining beta diversity as a function of alpha~~ and gamma diversity. Ecography 33: 2–22. {{doi\|10.1111/j.1600-0587.2009.05880.x}}</ref><ref name=Tuomisto2010b>Tuomisto, H. (2010) A diversity of beta diversities: straightening up a concept gone awry. Part 2. Quantifying beta diversity and related phenomena. Ecography, 33, 23-45. {{doi\|10.1111/j.1600-0587.2009.06148.x}}</ref> Some use beta diversity as a broad umbrella term that can refer to any of several indices related to compositional heterogeneity.<ref name=Koleff2003>Koleff, P., Gaston, K. J. and Lennon, J. J. (2003) Measuring beta diversity for presence–absence data. Journal of Animal Ecology 72, 367–382. {{doi\| 10.1046/j.1365-2656.2003.00710.x}}</ref><ref>Anderson, M. J. et al. (2011) Navigating the multiple meanings of β diversity: a roadmap for the practicing ecologist. Ecology Letters 14, 19–28. {{doi\|10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01552.x}}</ref><ref>Gorelick, R. (2011) Commentary: Do we have a consistent terminology for species diversity? The fallacy of true diversity. Oecologia 167, 885-888. {{doi\|10.1007/s00442-011-2124-8}}</ref> Others argue that such broad usage should be avoided because it leads to confusion. Instead, they propose that the term beta diversity be used to refer to one phenomenon only (true beta diversity), and that other things be referred to by other names.<ref name=Tuomisto2010a /><ref name=Tuomisto2010b /><ref name=Tuomisto2010c>Tuomisto, H. 2010. A consistent terminology for quantifying species diversity? Yes, it does exist. Oecologia 4: 853–860. {{doi\|10.1007/s00442-010-1812-0}}</ref><ref>Jurasinski, G. and Koch, M. (2011) Commentary: do we have a consistent terminology for species diversity? We are on the way. Oecologia, 167, 893-902. {{doi\|10.1007/s00442-011-2126-6}}</ref><ref>Moreno, C. E: and Rodríguez, P. (2011) Commentary: Do we have a consistent terminology for species diversity? Back to basics and toward a unifying framework. Oecologia, 167, 889-892. {{doi\|10.1007/s00442-011-2125-7}}</ref><ref>Tuomisto, H. (2011) Commentary: do we have a consistent terminology for species diversity? Yes, if we choose to use it. ~~Oecologia, 167, 903-911. {{doi\|10.1007/s00442-011-2128-4}}</ref>~~		The writer's name is Andera and she thinks it sounds quite good. For years he's been living in Alaska and he doesn't plan on altering it. To climb is something I truly appreciate doing. My day job is an info officer but I've currently applied for an additional one.<br><br>Here is my webpage - [http://m-card.co.kr/xe/mcard_2013_promote01/29877 online psychic reading]

	~~==Beta diversity in the strict sense (True beta diversity)==~~

	Gamma diversity and alpha diversity can be calculated directly from species inventory data.<ref name=Tuomisto2010a /><ref name=Jost2006>Jost L (2006) Entropy and diversity. Oikos 113, 363–375. {{doi\| 10.1111/j.2006.0030-1299.14714.x}}</ref> The simplest of Whittaker's original definitions of beta diversity is

	~~β = γ/α~~

	Here gamma diversity is the total species diversity of a landscape, and alpha diversity is the mean species diversity per habitat. Because the limits among habitats and landscapes are diffuse and to some degree subjective, it has been proposed that gamma diversity can be quantified for any inventory dataset, and that alpha and beta diversity can be quantified whenever the dataset is divided into subunits. ~~Then gamma diversity~~ is the total species diversity in the dataset and alpha diversity the mean species diversity per subunit. Beta diversity quantifies how many subunits there would be if the total species diversity of the dataset and the mean species diversity per subunit remained the same, but ~~the subunits shared no species.<ref name=Tuomisto2010a /><ref name=Tuomisto2010c />~~

	~~== Other things the term~~ '~~beta diversity' can refer to ==~~

	~~=== Absolute species turnover ===~~

	Some researchers have preferred to partition gamma diversity into additive rather than multiplicative components.<ref>Lande, R. (1996) Statistics and partitioning of species diversity, and similarity among multiple communities. Oikos, 76, 5-13.</ref><ref>Veech, J. A. et al. (2002) The additive partitioning of species diversity: recent revival of an ~~old idea. Oikos, 99, 3-9. {{doi\| 10.1034/j~~.~~1600-0706.2002.990101.x}}~~<~~/ref~~> ~~Then the beta component of diversity becomes~~

	β<~~sub~~>~~A</sub> = γ~~ - α

	This quantifies how much more species diversity the entire dataset contains than an average subunit within the dataset. This can also be interpreted as the total amount of species turnover among the subunits in the dataset.<ref name=Tuomisto2010a />

	~~When there are two subunits, and presence-absence data are used, this can be calculated with the following equation:~~

	~~<math>\beta_A=(S_1-c)+(S_2-c)</math><ref name="AlbertReis2011">{{cite book\|author1=James S. Albert\|author2=Roberto E. Reis\|title=Historical Biogeography of Neotropical Freshwater Fishes\|url=~~http://~~books.google.com/books?id=_Suu7a-ERdMC&pg=PA308\|accessdate=28 June 2011\|date=8 March 2011\|publisher=University of California Press\|isbn=978-0-520-26868~~-~~5\|page=308}}</ref>~~

	where, S<sub>1</sub>= the total number of species recorded in the first community, S<sub>2</sub>= the total number of species recorded in the second community, and c= the number of species common to both communities.

	~~===Whittaker's species turnover===~~

	~~If absolute species turnover is divided by alpha diversity, a measure is obtained that quantifies how many times the species composition changes completely among the subunits of the dataset~~. ~~This measure was proposed by Whittaker,<ref>Whittaker, R. H. (1972) Evolution and measurement of species diversity. Taxon, 21, 213-251.<~~/~~ref> so it has been called Whittaker's species turnover.<ref name=Tuomisto2010a /> It is calculated as~~

	~~β<sub>W</sub> = (γ - α)/α = γ/α - 1~~

	When there are two subunits, and presence-absence data are used, this equals the one-complement of the [[Sørensen similarity index]].<ref name=Tuomisto2010a /><ref name="Sørensen">Sørensen, T.A. (1948) A method of establishing groups of equal amplitude in plant sociology based on similarity of species content, and its application to analyses of the vegetation on Danish commons. Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Biologiske Skrifter, 5, 1–34.</~~ref>~~

	~~=== Proportional species turnover ===~~

	If absolute species turnover is divided by gamma diversity, a measure is obtained that quantifies what proportion of the species diversity in the dataset is not contained in an average subunit.<ref name=Tuomisto2010a /~~> It is calculated as~~

	~~β<sub>P</sub> = (γ - α)/γ = 1 - α/γ~~

	When there are two subunits, and presence-absence data are used, this measure as ranged to the interval [0, 1] equals the one-complement of the [[Jaccard index \| Jaccard similarity index]].<ref name=Tuomisto2010a />

	~~=== Compositional dissimilarity ===~~

	Traditionally beta diversity has been used as an umbrella term, and then any of the numerous available measures of compositional dissimilarity can be thought of as a measure of beta diversity.<ref name=Koleff2003 /> Because the different indices quantify different aspects of the data, they can give very different values for the same data set, and can change in opposite ways when dataset properties are changed. The values of some indices may be comparable, whereas comparing the values of other indices can be misleading and lead to erroneous conclusions.<ref name=Tuomisto2010a />

	~~== See also ==~~
	*[[Alpha diversity]]
	*[[Gamma diversity]]
	*[[Global biodiversity]]
	*[[Diversity index]]

	~~== References == <!-- Needs more, a good reference for indices is {{doi\|10.1046/j.1365-2656.2003.00710.x--}}-->~~
	~~{{reflist}}~~

	~~[[Category:Measurement of biodiversity]~~]

en>Rjwilmsi: ISBN error fixes, Changed 0-201-02988-X. using AWB (9884)

2014-01-25T09:45:23Z

ISBN error fixes, Changed 0-201-02988-X. using AWB (9884)

← Older revision		Revision as of 11:45, 25 January 2014
Line 1:		Line 1:
	~~Oscar~~ is how he'~~s called~~ and ~~he completely loves~~ this title. ~~Doing ceramics~~ is ~~what her family~~ and ~~her enjoy~~. ~~Hiring~~ is ~~my profession~~. ~~Years~~ in the ~~past we moved to North Dakota and I adore each working day residing right here~~.<br><br>~~Have a look at my site~~ [~~http:~~//~~www~~.~~buzzbit~~.~~net~~/~~blog~~/~~288042 std testing at home~~]		The term '''beta diversity''' (β-diversity) was introduced by R. H. Whittaker<ref name=Whittaker1960>Whittaker, R. H. (1960) Vegetation of the Siskiyou Mountains, Oregon and California. Ecological Monographs, 30, 279–338.</ref> together with the terms [[alpha diversity]] (α-diversity) and [[gamma diversity]] (γ-diversity). The idea was that the total [[species diversity]] in a landscape (γ) is determined by two different things, the mean species diversity at the habitat level (α) and the differentiation among habitats (β). Whittaker proposed several ways of quantifying differentiation, and subsequent generations of ecologists have invented more. As a result, the definition of beta diversity has become quite contentious.<ref name=Tuomisto2010a>Tuomisto, H. (2010) A diversity of beta diversities: straightening up a concept gone awry. Part 1. Defining beta diversity as a function of alpha and gamma diversity. Ecography 33: 2–22. {{doi\|10.1111/j.1600-0587.2009.05880.x}}</ref><ref name=Tuomisto2010b>Tuomisto, H. (2010) A diversity of beta diversities: straightening up a concept gone awry. Part 2. Quantifying beta diversity and related phenomena. Ecography, 33, 23-45. {{doi\|10.1111/j.1600-0587.2009.06148.x}}</ref> Some use beta diversity as a broad umbrella term that can refer to any of several indices related to compositional heterogeneity.<ref name=Koleff2003>Koleff, P., Gaston, K. J. and Lennon, J. J. (2003) Measuring beta diversity for presence–absence data. Journal of Animal Ecology 72, 367–382. {{doi\| 10.1046/j.1365-2656.2003.00710.x}}</ref><ref>Anderson, M. J. et al. (2011) Navigating the multiple meanings of β diversity: a roadmap for the practicing ecologist. Ecology Letters 14, 19–28. {{doi\|10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01552.x}}</ref><ref>Gorelick, R. (2011) Commentary: Do we have a consistent terminology for species diversity? The fallacy of true diversity. Oecologia 167, 885-888. {{doi\|10.1007/s00442-011-2124-8}}</ref> Others argue that such broad usage should be avoided because it leads to confusion. Instead, they propose that the term beta diversity be used to refer to one phenomenon only (true beta diversity), and that other things be referred to by other names.<ref name=Tuomisto2010a /><ref name=Tuomisto2010b /><ref name=Tuomisto2010c>Tuomisto, H. 2010. A consistent terminology for quantifying species diversity? Yes, it does exist. Oecologia 4: 853–860. {{doi\|10.1007/s00442-010-1812-0}}</ref><ref>Jurasinski, G. and Koch, M. (2011) Commentary: do we have a consistent terminology for species diversity? We are on the way. Oecologia, 167, 893-902. {{doi\|10.1007/s00442-011-2126-6}}</ref><ref>Moreno, C. E: and Rodríguez, P. (2011) Commentary: Do we have a consistent terminology for species diversity? Back to basics and toward a unifying framework. Oecologia, 167, 889-892. {{doi\|10.1007/s00442-011-2125-7}}</ref><ref>Tuomisto, H. (2011) Commentary: do we have a consistent terminology for species diversity? Yes, if we choose to use it. Oecologia, 167, 903-911. {{doi\|10.1007/s00442-011-2128-4}}</ref>

			==Beta diversity in the strict sense (True beta diversity)==

			Gamma diversity and alpha diversity can be calculated directly from species inventory data.<ref name=Tuomisto2010a /><ref name=Jost2006>Jost L (2006) Entropy and diversity. Oikos 113, 363–375. {{doi\| 10.1111/j.2006.0030-1299.14714.x}}</ref> The simplest of Whittaker's original definitions of beta diversity is

			β = γ/α

			Here gamma diversity is the total species diversity of a landscape, and alpha diversity is the mean species diversity per habitat. Because the limits among habitats and landscapes are diffuse and to some degree subjective, it has been proposed that gamma diversity can be quantified for any inventory dataset, and that alpha and beta diversity can be quantified whenever the dataset is divided into subunits. Then gamma diversity is the total species diversity in the dataset and alpha diversity the mean species diversity per subunit. Beta diversity quantifies how many subunits there would be if the total species diversity of the dataset and the mean species diversity per subunit remained the same, but the subunits shared no species.<ref name=Tuomisto2010a /><ref name=Tuomisto2010c />

			== Other things the term 'beta diversity' can refer to ==

			=== Absolute species turnover ===

			Some researchers have preferred to partition gamma diversity into additive rather than multiplicative components.<ref>Lande, R. (1996) Statistics and partitioning of species diversity, and similarity among multiple communities. Oikos, 76, 5-13.</ref><ref>Veech, J. A. et al. (2002) The additive partitioning of species diversity: recent revival of an old idea. Oikos, 99, 3-9. {{doi\| 10.1034/j.1600-0706.2002.990101.x}}</ref> Then the beta component of diversity becomes

			β<sub>A</sub> = γ - α

			This quantifies how much more species diversity the entire dataset contains than an average subunit within the dataset. This can also be interpreted as the total amount of species turnover among the subunits in the dataset.<ref name=Tuomisto2010a />

			When there are two subunits, and presence-absence data are used, this can be calculated with the following equation:

			<math>\beta_A=(S_1-c)+(S_2-c)</math><ref name="AlbertReis2011">{{cite book\|author1=James S. Albert\|author2=Roberto E. Reis\|title=Historical Biogeography of Neotropical Freshwater Fishes\|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=_Suu7a-ERdMC&pg=PA308\|accessdate=28 June 2011\|date=8 March 2011\|publisher=University of California Press\|isbn=978-0-520-26868-5\|page=308}}</ref>

			where, S<sub>1</sub>= the total number of species recorded in the first community, S<sub>2</sub>= the total number of species recorded in the second community, and c= the number of species common to both communities.

			===Whittaker's species turnover===

			If absolute species turnover is divided by alpha diversity, a measure is obtained that quantifies how many times the species composition changes completely among the subunits of the dataset. This measure was proposed by Whittaker,<ref>Whittaker, R. H. (1972) Evolution and measurement of species diversity. Taxon, 21, 213-251.</ref> so it has been called Whittaker's species turnover.<ref name=Tuomisto2010a /> It is calculated as

			β<sub>W</sub> = (γ - α)/α = γ/α - 1

			When there are two subunits, and presence-absence data are used, this equals the one-complement of the [[Sørensen similarity index]].<ref name=Tuomisto2010a /><ref name="Sørensen">Sørensen, T.A. (1948) A method of establishing groups of equal amplitude in plant sociology based on similarity of species content, and its application to analyses of the vegetation on Danish commons. Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Biologiske Skrifter, 5, 1–34.</ref>

			=== Proportional species turnover ===

			If absolute species turnover is divided by gamma diversity, a measure is obtained that quantifies what proportion of the species diversity in the dataset is not contained in an average subunit.<ref name=Tuomisto2010a /> It is calculated as

			β<sub>P</sub> = (γ - α)/γ = 1 - α/γ

			When there are two subunits, and presence-absence data are used, this measure as ranged to the interval [0, 1] equals the one-complement of the [[Jaccard index \| Jaccard similarity index]].<ref name=Tuomisto2010a />

			=== Compositional dissimilarity ===

			Traditionally beta diversity has been used as an umbrella term, and then any of the numerous available measures of compositional dissimilarity can be thought of as a measure of beta diversity.<ref name=Koleff2003 /> Because the different indices quantify different aspects of the data, they can give very different values for the same data set, and can change in opposite ways when dataset properties are changed. The values of some indices may be comparable, whereas comparing the values of other indices can be misleading and lead to erroneous conclusions.<ref name=Tuomisto2010a />

			== See also ==
			*[[Alpha diversity]]
			*[[Gamma diversity]]
			*[[Global biodiversity]]
			*[[Diversity index]]

			== References == <!-- Needs more, a good reference for indices is {{doi\|10.1046/j.1365-2656.2003.00710.x--}}-->
			{{reflist}}

			[[Category:Measurement of biodiversity]]

en>LaaknorBot: Robot: Adding pt:Máquinas de Turing equivalentes

2012-07-04T08:03:50Z

Robot: Adding pt:Máquinas de Turing equivalentes

New page

Oscar is how he's called and he completely loves this title. Doing ceramics is what her family and her enjoy. Hiring is my profession. Years in the past we moved to North Dakota and I adore each working day residing right here.<br><br>Have a look at my site [http://www.buzzbit.net/blog/288042 std testing at home]