|
|
| (One intermediate revision by one other user not shown) |
| Line 1: |
Line 1: |
| {{other uses}}
| | My name is Saundra Zimmerman. I life in Baton Rouge (United States).<br><br>my blog post ... [http://hemorrhoidtreatmentfix.com/hemorrhoid-symptoms symptoms of hemorrhoids] |
| {{See also |Littoral zone|Foreshore}}
| |
| [[File:Knight's Point, West Coast.jpg|thumb|Rugged coastline of the [[West Coast Region]] of [[New Zealand]]]]
| |
| A '''coastline''' or '''seashore''' is the area where land meets the [[sea]] or [[ocean]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition|year=2000|title=Coast|url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/43/C0434300.html|accessdate=2008-12-11}}</ref> A precise line that can be called a coastline cannot be determined due to the dynamic nature of tides. The term "'''coastal zone'''" can be used instead, which is a spatial zone where interaction of the sea and land processes occurs.<ref>{{cite web|first=Stephen A.|last=Nelson|title=Coastal Zones|url=http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/geol204/coastalzones.htm|year=2007|accessdate=2008-12-11}}</ref> Both the terms coast and coastal are often used to describe a geographic location or region; for example, New Zealand's [[West Coast Region|West Coast]], or the [[East Coast of the United States|East]] and [[West Coast of the United States|West Coasts of the United States]].
| |
| | |
| A [[pelagic]] coast refers to a coast which fronts the open ocean, as opposed to a more sheltered coast in a [[Headlands and bays|gulf]] or [[Headlands and bays|bay]]. A [[shore]], on the other hand, can refer to parts of the land which adjoin any large body of water, including oceans (sea shore) and [[lake]]s (lake shore). Similarly, the somewhat related term "[[Stream bed|bank]]" refers to the land alongside or sloping down to a [[river]] (riverbank) or to a body of water smaller than a lake. "Bank" is also used in some parts of the world to refer to an artificial ridge of earth intended to retain the water of a river or [[pond]]; in other places this may be called a [[levee]].
| |
| | |
| While many scientific experts might agree on a common definition of the term "coast", the delineation of the extents of a coast differ according to [[jurisdiction]], with many scientific and government authorities in various countries differing for economic and social policy reasons. According to the UN atlas, 44% of people live within {{convert|150|km|mi|abbr=off}} of the sea.<ref name="UN Atlas">{{cite web|title=UN Atlas|url=http://coastalchallenges.com/2010/01/31/un-atlas-60-of-us-live-in-the-coastal-areas/|accessdate=31 October 2013}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ==Formation{{anchor|Formation of Coasts}}==
| |
| [[File:Porto Covo pano April 2009-4.jpg|thumb|left|260px|Atlantic rocky coastline, showing a surf area. Porto Covo, west coast of Portugal]]
| |
| [[Tide]]s often determine the range over which [[sediment]] is deposited or eroded. Areas with high tidal ranges allow waves to reach farther up the shore, and areas with lower tidal ranges produce deprossosition at a smaller elevation interval. The tidal range is influenced by the size and shape of the coastline. Tides do not typically cause erosion by themselves; however, [[tidal bore]]s can erode as the waves surge up river [[Estuary|estuaries]] from the ocean.<ref>Davidson (2002), p.421.</ref>
| |
| | |
| Waves erode coastline as they break on shore releasing their energy; the larger the wave the more energy it releases and the more sediment it moves. Coastlines with longer shores have more room for the waves to disperse their energy, while coasts with cliffs and short shore faces give little room for the wave energy to be dispersed. In these areas the wave energy breaking against the cliffs is higher, and air and water are compressed into cracks in the rock, forcing the rock apart, breaking it down. Sediment deposited by waves comes from eroded cliff faces and is moved along the coastline by the waves. This forms an [[abrasion coast|abrasion]] or [[cliffed coast]].
| |
| | |
| Sediment deposited by rivers is the dominant influence on the amount of sediment located on a coastline.<ref name=Easterbrook>Easterbrook (1999).</ref> Today riverine deposition at the coast is often blocked by dams and other human regulatory devices, which remove the sediment from the stream by causing it to be deposited inland.
| |
| | |
| Like the ocean which shapes them, coasts are a dynamic environment with constant change. The Earth's natural processes, particularly [[sea level rise]]s, waves and various [[weather]] phenomena, have resulted in the [[erosion]], [[Accretion (geology)|accretion]] and reshaping of coasts as well as flooding and creation of [[continental shelf|continental shelves]] and drowned river valleys ([[ria]]s).
| |
| | |
| ==Environmental importance==
| |
| [[File:Somalia 16.08.2009 08-30-13.jpg|thumb|left|180px|[[Somalia]] has the longest coastline in Africa]]
| |
| The coast and its adjacent areas on and off shore are an important part of a local [[ecosystem]]: the mixture of fresh water and [[salt]] water in [[estuary|estuaries]] provides many nutrients for marine life. Salt [[marsh]]es and [[beach]]es also support a diversity of [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s and [[insect]]s crucial to the [[food chain]].
| |
| | |
| The high level of [[biodiversity]] creates a high level of biological activity, which has attracted human activity for thousands of years.
| |
| | |
| ==Human impacts==
| |
| | |
| ===Human uses of coasts===
| |
| [[Image:Marbleheadcoastline.jpg|thumb|A settled coastline in [[Marblehead, Massachusetts]]. Once a fishing port, the harbor is now dedicated to tourism and pleasure boating. Observe that the sand and rocks have been darkened by oil slick up to the high-water line.]]
| |
| [[File:Beach at Msasani Bay, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.JPG|thumb|This stretch of coast in Tanzania's capital Dar es Salaam serves as a public waste dump.]]
| |
| [[Image:Tiburon.jpg|thumb|right|[[House]]s close to the coast, like these in [[Tiburon, California]], may be especially desirable properties.]]
| |
| [[File:Vizag-Beach.JPG|thumb|View of sea coast from top of a hill at [[Visakhapatnam]] in [[India]]]]
| |
| More and more of the world's people live in coastal regions.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Sara|last=Goudarzi|title=Flocking to the Coast: World's Population Migrating into Danger|journal=Live Science|date=July 18, 2006|url=http://www.livescience.com/environment/060718_map_settle.html|accessdate=2008-12-14}}</ref> Many major cities are on or near good [[harbor]]s and have [[port]] facilities. Some [[landlocked]] places have achieved port status by building [[canal]]s.
| |
| | |
| The coast is a frontier that nations have typically defended against military invaders, smugglers and illegal migrants. Fixed [[coastal defenses]] have long been erected in many nations and coastal countries typically have a [[navy]] and some form of [[coast guard]].
| |
| | |
| Coasts, especially those with [[beach]]es and warm water, attract [[tourists]]. In many [[island nation]]s such as those of the Mediterranean, South Pacific and Caribbean, tourism is central to the economy. Coasts offer recreational activities such as [[human swimming|swimming]], [[fishing]], [[surfing]], [[boating]], and [[Sunlight#Sunbathing|sunbathing]]. [[Growth management]] can be a challenge for coastal [[local government|local authorities]] who often struggle to provide the [[infrastructure]] required by new residents.
| |
| | |
| ===Threats to a coast===
| |
| Coasts also face many human-induced environmental impacts. The human influence on [[climate change]] is thought to contribute to an accelerated trend in [[sea level rise]] which threatens coastal habitats.
| |
| | |
| [[Marine pollution|Pollution]] can occur from a number of sources: [[Marine debris|garbage and industrial debris]]; the [[transport]]ation of [[petroleum]] in [[tanker (ship)|tankers]], increasing the probability of large [[oil spill]]s; small oil spills created by large and small vessels, which flush [[bilge]] water into the ocean.
| |
| | |
| Fishing has declined due to [[Environmental effects of fishing|habitat degradation]], [[overfishing]], [[trawling]], [[bycatch]] and [[climate change]]. Since the growth of global fishing enterprises after the 1950s, intensive fishing has spread from a few concentrated areas to encompass nearly all fisheries. The scraping of the ocean floor in [[Bottom trawling|bottom dragging]] is devastating to coral, sponges and other long-lived species that do not recover quickly. This destruction alters the functioning of the ecosystem and can permanently alter species composition and biodiversity. Bycatch, the capture of unintended species in the course of fishing, is typically returned to the ocean only to die from injuries or exposure. Bycatch represents about a quarter of all marine catch. In the case of shrimp capture, the bycatch is five times larger than the shrimp caught.
| |
| | |
| It is believed that melting Arctic ice will cause sea levels to rise and flood costal areas.
| |
| {{further2|[[Marine pollution]]|[[Marine debris]]}}
| |
| | |
| ===Conservation===
| |
| Extraordinary population growth in the 20th century has placed stress on the planet's ecosystems. For example, on [[Saint Lucia]], harvesting mangrove for timber and clearing for fishing reduced the mangrove forests, resulting in a loss of habitat and spawning grounds for marine life that was unique to the area. These forests also helped to stabilize the coastline. Conservation efforts since the 1980s have partially restored the ecosystem.
| |
| | |
| ==Types of coast==
| |
| According to one principle of classification, an emergent coastline is a coastline which has experienced a fall in sea level, because of either a global sea level change, or local uplift. Emergent coastlines are identifiable by the coastal [[landform]]s, which are above the high tide mark, such as [[raised beach]]es. In contrast, a submergent coastline is one where the sea level has risen, due to a global sea level change, local [[subsidence]], or [[isostatic rebound]]. Submergent coastlines are identifiable by their submerged, or "drowned" landforms, such as [[ria]]s (drowned valleys) and [[fjord]]s.
| |
| {{Further2|[[Emergent coastline]]|[[Submergent coastline]]}}
| |
| | |
| According to a second principle of classification, a concordant coastline is a coastline where bands of different rock types run parallel to the shore. These rock types are usually of varying [[Geological resistance|resistance]], so the coastline forms distinctive landforms, such as coves. Discordant coastlines feature distinctive landforms because the rocks are [[erosion|eroded]] by ocean [[wave]]s. The less resistant rocks erode faster, creating [[inlet]]s or [[headlands and bays|bays]]; the more resistant rocks erode more slowly, remaining as [[headlands and bays|headlands]] or outcroppings.
| |
| {{Further2|[[Concordant coastline]]|[[Discordant coastline]]}}
| |
| | |
| Other coastal categories:
| |
| *A [[cliffed coast]] or abrasion coast is one where marine action has produced steep declivities known as [[cliff]]s.
| |
| *A [[flat coast]] is one where the land gradually descends into the sea.
| |
| *A [[graded shoreline]] is one where wind and water action has produced a flat and straight coastline.
| |
| | |
| == Coastal landforms ==
| |
| [[Image:Accreting coast Image6.svg|thumb|Coastal landforms. The feature shown here as a [[bay]] would, in certain (mainly southern) parts of [[Great Britain|Britain]], be called a [[cove]]. That between the cuspate foreland and the tombolo is a British bay.]]
| |
| The following articles describe some coastal landforms
| |
| | |
| {{col-begin|width=50%}}
| |
| {{col-break|width=25%}}
| |
| *[[headlands and bays|Bay]]
| |
| *[[Headlands and bays|Cape]]
| |
| *[[Cove]]
| |
| {{col-break|width=25%}}
| |
| *[[Headlands and bays|Gulf]]
| |
| *[[Headlands and bays|Headland]]
| |
| *[[Peninsula]]
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| | |
| ===Cliff erosion===
| |
| * Much of the sediment deposited along a coast is the result of erosion of a surrounding [[cliff]], or bluff. [[Sea cliff]]s retreat landward because of the constant undercutting of slopes by waves. If the slope/cliff being undercut is made of unconsolidated sediment it will erode at a much faster rate then a cliff made of bedrock.<ref name=Easterbrook/>
| |
| *A [[natural arch]] is formed when a sea stacks is eroded through by waves.
| |
| *[[Sea cave]]s are made when certain rock beds are more susceptible to erosion than the surrounding rock beds because of different areas of weakness. These areas are eroded at a faster pace creating a hole or crevasse that, through time, by means of wave action and erosion, becomes a cave.
| |
| *A [[stack (geology)|stack]] is formed when a headland is eroded away by wave and wind action.
| |
| *A [[Stack (geology)|stump]] is a shortened sea stack that has been eroded away or fallen because of instability.
| |
| * Wave-cut notches are caused by the undercutting of overhanging slopes which leads to increased stress on cliff material and a greater probability that the slope material will fall. The fallen debris accumulates at the bottom of the cliff and is eventually removed by waves.
| |
| *A [[wave-cut platform]] forms after erosion and retreat of a sea cliff has been occurring for a long time. Gently sloping wave-cut platforms develop early on in the first stages of cliff retreat. Later the length of the platform decreases because the waves lose their energy as they break further off shore.<ref name=Easterbrook/>
| |
| | |
| ===Rivers on the coastline===
| |
| *[[River delta|Delta]]
| |
| *[[Estuary]]
| |
| *[[Lagoon]]
| |
| | |
| ===Coastal features formed by sediment===
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break|width=25%}}
| |
| *[[Beach]]
| |
| *[[Beach cusps]]
| |
| *[[Boondocks]]
| |
| {{col-break|width=25%}}
| |
| *[[Cuspate foreland]]
| |
| *[[Dune|Dune system]]
| |
| *[[Mudflat]]
| |
| *[[Raised beach]]
| |
| {{col-break|width=25%}}
| |
| *[[Ria]]
| |
| *[[Shoal]]
| |
| *[[Strand plain]]
| |
| {{col-break|width=25%}}
| |
| *[[Spit (landform)|Spit]]
| |
| *[[Surge channel]]
| |
| *[[Tombolo]]
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| | |
| ===Coastal features formed by another feature===
| |
| *[[Lagoon]]
| |
| *[[Salt marsh]]
| |
| | |
| ===Other features on the coast===
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break|width=25%}}
| |
| *[[Concordant coastline]]
| |
| *[[Discordant coastline]]
| |
| {{col-break|width=25%}}
| |
| *[[Fjord]]
| |
| *[[Island]]
| |
| {{col-break|width=25%}}
| |
| *[[Island arc]]
| |
| *[[Machair]]
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| | |
| ==Coastal processes==
| |
| The following articles describe the various geologic processes that affect a coastal zone:
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break|width=25%}}
| |
| *[[Attrition (weathering)|Attrition]]
| |
| *[[Ocean current|Currents]]
| |
| *[[Denudation]]
| |
| *[[Deposition (geology)|Deposition]]
| |
| *[[Erosion]]
| |
| *[[Flood]]ing
| |
| {{col-break|width=25%}}
| |
| *[[Longshore drift]]
| |
| *[[Saltation (geology)|Saltation]]
| |
| *[[Sea level change]]
| |
| **[[eustatic]]
| |
| **[[isostatic]]
| |
| {{col-break|width=25%}}
| |
| *[[Sedimentation]]
| |
| * [[Coastal sediment supply]]
| |
| **[[sediment transport]]
| |
| **[[solution]]
| |
| **[[subaerial]] processes
| |
| **[[Suspension (chemistry)|suspension]]
| |
| {{col-break|width=25%}}
| |
| *[[Tide]]s
| |
| *[[Wind wave|Water waves]]
| |
| **[[diffraction]]
| |
| **[[refraction]]
| |
| **[[wave breaking]]
| |
| **[[wave shoaling]]
| |
| *[[Weathering]]
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| | |
| ==Wildlife==
| |
| {{See also|Seashore wildlife|Coastal fish}}
| |
| | |
| ===Animals===
| |
| A wide variety of animals live along a typical coast. There are animals like [[puffin]]s, [[sea turtle]]s and [[rockhopper penguin]]s. [[Gastropoda|Sea snails]] and various kinds of [[barnacle]]s live on the coast and scavenge on food deposited by the sea. Most coastal animals are used to humans in developed areas, such as [[dolphin]]s and [[seagulls]] who eat food thrown for them by tourists. Since the coastal areas are all part of the [[littoral zone]], there is a profusion of marine life found just off-coast.
| |
| | |
| There are many kinds of [[seabird]]s on the coast. [[Pelican]]s and [[cormorant]]s join up with [[tern]]s and [[oystercatcher]]s to forage for fish and shellfish on the coast. There are sea lions on the coast of Wales and other countries.
| |
| | |
| ===Plants===
| |
| Coastal areas are famous for their [[kelp]] beds. Kelp is a fast growing [[seaweed]] that grows up to a metre a day. [[Coral]]s and [[sea anemone]]s are true animals, but live a lifestyle similar to that of plants. [[Mangroves]], [[seagrass]]es and [[salt marsh]] are important coastal vegetation types in tropical and temperate environments respectively.
| |
| | |
| ==Coastline statistics==
| |
| | |
| ===Coastline problem===
| |
| {{main|Coastline paradox}}
| |
| Shortly before 1951, [[Lewis Fry Richardson#Research on the length of coastlines and borders|Lewis Fry Richardson]], in researching the possible effect of border lengths on the probability of war, noticed that the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] reported their measured border with [[Spain]] to be 987 km, but the Spanish reported it as 1214 km. This was the beginning of the coastline problem, which is a mathematical uncertainty inherent in the measurement of boundaries that are irregular.<ref>{{Cite journal|pages=45–46|title=The Collected Papers of Lewis Fry Richardson: |volume=1, ''Meteorology and numerical analysis'' |contribution=Fractals |editor1-first=Oliver M.|editor1-last=Ashford |editor2-first= H.|editor2-last=Charnock |editor3-first= P. G.|editor3-last= Drazin |editor4-first= J. C. R. |editor4-last=Hunt |publisher=Cambridge University Press (CUP) Archive |year=1993 |isbn=0-521-38297-1}}.</ref>
| |
| | |
| The prevailing method of estimating the length of a border (or coastline) was to lay out ''n'' equal straight-line segments of length ''ℓ'' with [[Caliper#Divider caliper|dividers]] on a map or aerial photograph. Each end of the segment must be on the boundary. Investigating the discrepancies in border estimation, Richardson discovered what is now termed the '''Richardson Effect''': the sum of the segments is inversely proportional to the common length of the segments. In effect, the shorter the ruler, the longer the measured border; the Spanish and Portuguese geographers were simply using different-length rulers.
| |
| | |
| The result most astounding to Richardson is that, under certain circumstances, as ''ℓ'' approaches zero, the length of the coastline approaches [[infinity]]. Richardson had believed, based on Euclidean geometry, that a coastline would approach a fixed length, as do similar estimations of regular geometric figures. For example, the [[perimeter]] of a regular [[polygon]] inscribed in a [[circle]] approaches the [[circumference]] with increasing numbers of sides (and decrease in the length of one side). In [[geometric measure theory]] such a smooth curve as the circle that can be approximated by small straight segments with a definite limit is termed a [[rectifiable curve]].
| |
| | |
| ===Measuring a coastline===
| |
| More than a decade after Richardson completed his work, [[Benoit Mandelbrot]] developed a new branch of [[mathematics]], [[fractal geometry]], to describe just such non-rectifiable complexes in nature as the infinite coastline.<ref name=MB28>Mandelbrot (1983) page 28.</ref> His own definition of the new figure serving as the basis for his study is:<ref>Mandelbrot (1983), page 1.</ref>{{Quote|I coined ''[[fractal]]'' from the [[Latin]] adjective ''fractus''. The corresponding Latin verb ''frangere'' means "to break:" to create irregular fragments. It is therefore sensible ... that, in addition to "fragmented" ... ''fractus'' should also mean "irregular."}}
| |
| | |
| A key property of the fractal is [[self-similarity]]; that is, at any [[Scale (spatial)|scale]] the same general configuration appears. A coastline is perceived as bays alternating with promontories. In the hypothetical situation that a given coastline has this property of self-similarity, then no matter how greatly any one small section of coastline is magnified, a similar pattern of smaller bays and promontories superimposed on larger bays and promontories appears, right down to the grains of sand. At that scale the coastline appears as a momentarily shifting, potentially infinitely long thread with a [[stochastic]] arrangement of bays and promontories formed from the small objects at hand. In such an environment (as opposed to smooth curves) Mandelbrot asserts<ref name=MB28/> "coastline length turns out to be an elusive notion that slips between the fingers of those who want to grasp it."
| |
| | |
| There are different kinds of fractals. A coastline with the stated property is in "a first category of fractals, namely curves whose fractal dimension is greater than 1." That last statement represents an extension by Mandelbrot of Richardson's thought. Mandelbrot's statement of the Richardson Effect is:<ref>Mandelbrot (1983), pages 29–31.</ref>
| |
| | |
| :<math>L(\epsilon)\sim F\epsilon^{1-D}\,</math>
| |
| | |
| where L, coastline length, a function of the measurement unit, ε, is approximated by the expression. F is a constant and D is a parameter that Richardson found depended on the coastline approximated by L. He gave no theoretical explanation but Mandelbrot identified D with a non-integer form of the [[Hausdorff dimension]], later the fractal dimension. Rearranging the right side of the expression obtains:
| |
| | |
| :<math>\frac {F} {\epsilon^{D}} \cdot \epsilon</math>
| |
| | |
| where Fε<sup>-D</sup> must be the number of units ε required to obtain L. The fractal dimension is the number of the dimensions of the figure being used to approximate the fractal: 0 for a dot, 1 for a line, 2 for a square. D in the expression is between 1 and 2, for coastlines typically less than 1.5. The broken line measuring the coast does not extend in one direction nor does it represent an area, but is intermediate. It can be interpreted as a thick line or band of width 2ε. More broken coastlines have greater D and therefore L is longer for the same ε. Mandelbrot showed that D is independent of ε.
| |
| | |
| {{details|How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension}}
| |
| | |
| ==See also==
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break|width=50%}}
| |
| *[[Ballantine Scale]]
| |
| *[[Coastal and Estuarine Research Federation]]
| |
| *[[Coastal biogeomorphology]]
| |
| *[[Coastal development hazards]]
| |
| *[[Coastline of the North Sea]]
| |
| *[[European Atlas of the Seas]]
| |
| *[[How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension]]
| |
| *[[Land reclamation]]
| |
| {{col-break|width=50%}}
| |
| *[[List of countries by length of coastline]]
| |
| *[[List of U.S. states by coastline]]
| |
| *[[Marine debris]]
| |
| *[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Climate and Societal Interactions Program]]
| |
| *[[Nautical chart]]
| |
| *[[Pole of inaccessibility]]
| |
| *[[Seaside resort]]
| |
| *[[Tombolo]]
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| | |
| ==Notes==
| |
| {{reflist}}
| |
| | |
| ==References==
| |
| * {{Cite journal | last =Burke| first =Lauretta A.| last2 =Kura| first2 =Yumiko| first3=Ken| last3=Kassem| first4=Carmen|last4=Revenga| first5=Mark|last5=Spalding| first6=Don|last6=McAllister| year =2001| contribution =Coastal Ecosystems| contribution-url =http://pdf.wri.org/Page_coastal.pdf| editor-last =Hutter| editor-first =Carolynne| editor-link =| editor2-last =| title =Pilot Analysis of Global Ecosystems|publisher =World Resources Institute | isbn =978-1-56973-458-2}}
| |
| * {{cite book |last=Davidson |first=Jon P. |coauthors=Reed, Walter E.; Davis, Paul M. |title=Exploring Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology
| |
| |year=2002 |publisher=Prentice-Hall Inc |location=Upper Saddle River, NJ | isbn=978-0-13-018372-9}}
| |
| * {{cite book |last=Easterbrook |first=Don J. |title=Surface Processes and Landforms |edition=2 |year=1999 |publisher=Prentice-Hall Inc |location=Upper Saddle River, NJ |isbn=978-0-13-860958-0}}
| |
| * {{cite book|last=Haslett|first=Simon K.|year=2009|title=Coastal Systems (2nd Edition)|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|series=introduction to environment|isbn=978-0-415-44060-8}}
| |
| * {{cite book |last=Mandelbrot |first=Benoit B. |authorlink=Benoit Mandelbrot |title=The Fractal Geometry of Nature |year= |month= |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0-7167-1186-5 |pages=25–33 |chapter=II.5 How long is the coast of Britain?}}
| |
| | |
| ==External links==
| |
| {{commons category|Coasts}}
| |
| * {{cite web|url=http://www.wildcoast-usa.com/|title=Wild Coast USA|publisher=[[Sierra Club]]|accessdate=2008-12-11}}
| |
| * {{cite web|url=http://nosdataexplorer.noaa.gov/nosdataexplorer/|title=Data Explorer|publisher=[[NOAA]]'s National Ocean Service|accessdate=2008-12-11}}
| |
| | |
| {{coastal geography}}
| |
| | |
| [[Category:Coasts| ]]
| |
| [[Category:Coastal and oceanic landforms]]
| |
| [[Category:Coastal geography]]
| |