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{{Use British English|date=November 2012}}
Laurie Simon is how she's called and she loves the program. Taking care of animals is her profession but she plans on changing the house. One of the things she loves most is to resolve puzzles and she's been doing it for several years. Some time ago she thought to live in Illinois. She is running and maintaining a blog here: http://Mousetracker.altervista.org/index.php?title=Mimi_Faust_Porn_Adventures<br><br>Stop by my web site ... nude digital photography ([http://Mousetracker.altervista.org/index.php?title=Mimi_Faust_Porn_Adventures Mousetracker.altervista.org])
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{{Infobox scientist
| name = Sir Isaac Newton
| image = GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
| alt = Portrait of man in black with shoulder-length, wavy brown hair, a large sharp nose, and a distracted gaze
| caption = [[Godfrey Kneller]]'s 1689 portrait of Isaac Newton (age 46).
| birth_date = 25 December 1642<br/>{{small|<nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Old Style and New Style dates|NS]]: {{Birth date|1643|01|04|df=y}}<nowiki>]</nowiki>}}{{lower|0.1em|<ref name="OSNS"/>}}
| birth_place = {{nowrap|[[Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth]],}} [[Lincolnshire]], [[Kingdom of England|England]]
| death_date = {{nowrap|20 March 1727<!-- This is the generally accepted manner of recording Newton's death date. Please do not change without discussion. --> (aged 84)}}<br/>{{small|<nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Old Style and New Style dates|OS]]: {{death date|1726|03|20|df=y}}<br/>&nbsp;[[Old Style and New Style dates|NS]]: {{death date|1727|03|31|df=y}}<nowiki>]</nowiki><!--end small:-->}}{{lower|0.1em|<ref name="OSNS"/>}}
| death_place = [[Kensington]], [[Middlesex]], [[England]], [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]]
| resting_place = [[Westminster Abbey]]
| residence = England
| nationality = [[Kingdom of England|English]] {{small|(later [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]])}}
| fields =
{{unbulleted list
  | {{hlist |[[Physics]] |[[Natural philosophy]]}}
  | {{hlist |[[Mathematics]] |[[Astronomy]]}}
  | {{hlist |[[Alchemy]] |[[Christian theology]]}}
  | {{hlist |[[Economics]] }}
}}
| workplaces = {{unbulleted list |[[University of Cambridge]] |[[Royal Society]] |[[Royal Mint]]}}
| alma_mater = [[Trinity College, Cambridge]]
| academic_advisors =
{{unbulleted list
  | [[Isaac Barrow]]<ref>Mordechai Feingold, [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/1541 Barrow, Isaac (1630–1677)], ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', [[Oxford University Press]], September 2004; online edn, May 2007. Retrieved 24 February 2009; explained further in Mordechai Feingold's "[http://www.jstor.org/stable/236236 Newton, Leibniz, and Barrow Too: An Attempt at a Reinterpretation]" in ''Isis'', Vol. 84, No. 2 (June 1993), pp. 310–338.</ref>
  | [[Benjamin Pulleyn]]<ref>''[http://www.chlt.org/sandbox/lhl/dsb/page.50.a.php "Newton, Isaac"] in the ''Dictionary of Scientific Biography'', n.4.</ref><ref name="The Newton Handbook"/>
}}
| notable_students = {{unbulleted list |[[Roger Cotes]] |[[William Whiston]]}}
| known_for =
{{unbulleted list
  |[[Newtonian mechanics]] |[[Universal gravitation]] |[[Infinitesimal calculus]]
  |{{hlist |[[Optics]] |[[Binomial series]]}}
  |{{hlist |''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia]]'' |[[Newton's method]]}}
}}
| influences =
{{unbulleted list
  | [[Johannes Kepler]]
  | [[Henry More]]<ref name="More" />
  | [[Polish Brethren]]<ref name="heretic"/>
  | [[Robert Boyle]]<ref>{{cite book |title=Isaac Newton |last=Stokes |first=Mitch |year=2010 |publisher=Thomas Nelson |isbn=1595553037 |page=97 |url=http://books.google.gr/books?id=zpsoSXCeg5gC&pg=PA97&lpg=PA97&dq=#v=onepage&q=%22Boyle%20influenced%20Newton%22&f=false |accessdate=17 October 2012}}</ref>
}}
| influenced = <!--directly:-->{{unbulleted list |[[Nicolas Fatio de Duillier]] |[[John Keill]]}}
| signature = Isaac Newton signature.svg
| signature_alt = Is. Newton
<!--- The following not shown by template?:
| relatives = {{unbulleted list |[[Catherine Barton]] {{small|(half-niece)}}}}
| ethnicity = Caucasian
| religion = [[Christian]]<ref>[http://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/discoveries/2007-06-19-newton-religious-papers_N.htm Isaac Newton's Religious Side] USA Today News</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.isaac-newton.org/ |title="God is known for his work" |publisher=Isaac-newton.org |date= |accessdate=17 August 2012}}</ref>
| religion = [[Arianism]] {{small|(''see [[Isaac Newton's religious views]]'')}}
---->
}}
{{Isaac Newton sidebar}}
 
'''[[Knight Bachelor|Sir]] Isaac Newton''' {{small|[[President of the Royal Society|PRS]] [[Member of Parliament|MP]]}} ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|n|j|uː|t|ən}};<ref>[http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/newton "Newton"] entry in ''[[Collins English Dictionary]]'', HarperCollins Publishers, 1998.</ref> 25 December 1642{{spaced ndash}}20 March 1727<!-- This is the generally accepted manner of recording Newton's death date. Please do not change without discussion. --><ref name="OSNS"/>) was an English [[Physics|physicist]] and [[Methematics|mathematician]] who is widely regarded as one of the most influential scientists of all time and as a key figure in the [[scientific revolution]].  His book ''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]'' ("Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy"), first published in 1687, laid the foundations for most of [[classical mechanics]].  Newton also made seminal contributions to [[optics]] and shares credit with [[Gottfried Leibniz]] for the invention of the [[infinitesimal calculus]].
 
Newton's ''Principia'' formulated the [[Newton's laws of motion|laws of motion]] and [[Newton's law of universal gravitation|universal gravitation]] that dominated scientists' view of the physical universe for the next three centuries.  It also demonstrated that the [[Kinematics|motion of objects]] on the Earth and that of [[celestial mechanics|celestial]] bodies could be described by the same principles.  By deriving [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler's]] [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion|laws of planetary motion]] from his mathematical description of gravity, Newton removed the last doubts about the validity of the [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] model of the cosmos.
 
Newton built the first practical [[reflecting telescope]] and developed a theory of colour based on the observation that a [[Dispersive prism|prism]] decomposes white light into the many colours of the [[visible spectrum]]. He also formulated [[Newton's law of cooling|an empirical law of cooling]] and studied the [[speed of sound]].  In addition to his work on the calculus, as a mathematician Newton contributed to the study of [[power series]], generalised the [[binomial theorem]] to non-integer exponents, and developed [[Newton's method]] for approximating the [[Zero of a function|roots of a function]].
 
Newton was a fellow of [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity College]] and the second [[Lucasian Professor of Mathematics]] at the [[University of Cambridge]].  He was a devout but unorthodox Christian and, unusually for a member of the Cambridge faculty, he refused to take [[holy orders]] in the [[Church of England]], perhaps because he privately rejected the doctrine of the [[Trinity]].  In addition to his work on the mathematical sciences, Newton also dedicated much of his time to the study of [[alchemy]] and [[Chronology of the Bible|biblical chronology]], but most of his work in those areas remained unpublished until long after his death.  In his later life, Newton became president of the [[Royal Society]].  He also served the British government as Warden and Master of the [[Royal Mint]].
 
== Life ==
 
=== Early life ===
{{Main|Early life of Isaac Newton}}
 
Isaac Newton was born (according to the [[Julian calendar]] in use in England at the time) on Christmas Day, 25 December 1642 ([[Old Style and New Style dates|NS]] 4 January 1643<ref name="OSNS"/>), at [[Woolsthorpe Manor]] in [[Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth]], a [[hamlet (place)|hamlet]] in the county of [[Lincolnshire]]. He was born three months after the death of his father, a prosperous farmer also named Isaac Newton. Born [[premature birth|prematurely]], he was a small child; his mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit inside a [[quart]] mug (≈ 1.1 litres). When Newton was three, his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband, the Reverend Barnabus Smith, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother, Margery Ayscough. The young Isaac disliked his stepfather and maintained some enmity towards his mother for marrying him, as revealed by this entry in a list of sins committed up to the age of 19: "Threatening my father and mother Smith to burn them and the house over them." Her mother had three children from her second marriage.<ref>{{harvnb|Westfall|1980|p=55}}</ref> Although it was claimed that he was once engaged,<ref>This claim was made Dr. Stukeley in 1727, in a letter about Newton written to Dr. Richard Mead. Charles Hutton, who in the late 18th century collected oral traditions about earlier scientists, declares that there "do not appear to be any sufficient reason for his never marrying, if he had an inclination so to do. It is much more likely that he had a constitutional indifference to the state, and even to the sex in general." Charles Hutton "A Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary" (1795/6) II p.100.</ref> Newton never married.
 
[[File:Sir Isaac Newton by Sir Godfrey Kneller, Bt.jpg|thumb|upright|Newton in a 1702 portrait by [[Godfrey Kneller]]]]
[[File:Bolton-newton.jpg|thumb|upright|Isaac Newton (''Bolton, Sarah K. Famous Men of Science. NY: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1889'')]]
 
From the age of about twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at [[The King's School, Grantham]]. He was removed from school, and by October 1659, he was to be found at [[Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth]], where his mother, widowed by now for a second time, attempted to make a farmer of him. He hated farming.<ref>Westfall 1994, pp 16–19</ref> Henry Stokes, master at the King's School, persuaded his mother to send him back to school so that he might complete his education. Motivated partly by a desire for revenge against a schoolyard bully, he became the top-ranked student.<ref>White 1997, p. 22</ref>
 
In June 1661, he was admitted to [[Trinity College, Cambridge]] as a [[sizar]] – a sort of work-study role.<ref>Michael White, ''Isaac Newton'' (1999) [http://books.google.com/books?id=l2C3NV38tM0C&pg=PA24&dq=storer+intitle:isaac+intitle:newton&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES#PPA46,M1 page 46]</ref> At that time, the college's teachings were based on those of [[Aristotle]], whom Newton supplemented with modern philosophers, such as [[René Descartes|Descartes]], and [[astronomers]] such as [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]], [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]], and [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]]. In 1665, he discovered the generalised [[binomial theorem]] and began to develop a mathematical theory that later became [[infinitesimal calculus]]. Soon after Newton had obtained his degree in August 1665, the university temporarily closed as a precaution against the [[Great Plague of London|Great Plague]]. Although he had been undistinguished as a Cambridge student,<ref>ed. Michael Hoskins (1997). Cambridge Illustrated History of Astronomy, p.&nbsp;159. [[Cambridge University Press]]</ref> Newton's private studies at his home in Woolsthorpe over the subsequent two years saw the development of his theories on calculus,<ref>{{cite web |last=Newton |first=Isaac |title=Waste Book |url=http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-ADD-04004/|publisher=Cambridge University Digital Library|accessdate=10 January 2012}}</ref> [[optics]] and the [[law of gravitation]]. In 1667, he returned to Cambridge as a fellow of Trinity.<ref>{{acad|id=RY644J|name=Newton, Isaac}}</ref> Fellows were required to become ordained priests, something Newton desired to avoid due to his unorthodox views. Luckily for Newton, there was no specific deadline for ordination, and it could be postponed indefinitely. The problem became more severe later when Newton was elected for the prestigious [[Lucasian Chair]]. For such a significant appointment, ordaining normally could not be dodged. Nevertheless, Newton managed to avoid it by means of a special permission from [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] (see "Middle years" section below).
 
=== Middle years ===
 
==== Mathematics ====
Newton's work has been said "to distinctly advance every branch of mathematics then studied".<ref>W W Rouse Ball (1908), "A short account of the history of mathematics", at page 319.</ref> His work on the subject usually referred to as fluxions or calculus,  seen  in a manuscript of October 1666, is now published among Newton's mathematical papers.<ref>D T Whiteside (ed.), ''The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton'' (Volume 1), (Cambridge University Press, 1967), part 7 "The October 1666 Tract on Fluxions", [http://books.google.com/books?id=1ZcYsNBptfYC&pg=PA400 at page 400, in 2008 reprint].</ref>  The author of the manuscript ''[[De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas]]'', sent by [[Isaac Barrow]] to [[John Collins (mathematician)|John Collins]] in June 1669, was identified by Barrow in a letter sent to Collins in August of that year as:<ref>D Gjertsen (1986), "The Newton handbook", (London (Routledge & Kegan Paul) 1986), at page 149.</ref>  {{quote|Mr Newton, a fellow of our College, and very young&nbsp;... but of an extraordinary genius and proficiency in these things. }}
Newton later became involved in a dispute with [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz|Leibniz]] over priority in the development of infinitesimal calculus (the [[Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy]]). Most modern historians believe that Newton and Leibniz developed [[infinitesimal calculus]] independently, although with very different notations. Occasionally it has been suggested that Newton published almost nothing about it until 1693, and did not give a full account until 1704, while Leibniz began publishing a full account of his methods in 1684. (Leibniz's notation and "differential Method", nowadays recognised as much more convenient notations, were adopted by continental European mathematicians, and after 1820 or so, also by British mathematicians.) Such a suggestion, however, fails to notice the content of calculus which critics of Newton's time and modern times have pointed out in [[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica#Book 1, De motu corporum|Book 1]] of Newton's ''Principia'' itself (published 1687) and in its forerunner manuscripts, such as ''[[De motu corporum in gyrum]]'' ("On the motion of bodies in orbit"), of 1684. The ''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia]]'' is not written in the language of calculus either as we know it or as Newton's (later) 'dot' notation would write it. But his work extensively uses an infinitesimal calculus in geometric form, based on limiting values of the ratios of vanishing small quantities: in the ''Principia'' itself Newton gave demonstration of this under the name of 'the method of first and last ratios'<ref>Newton, 'Principia', 1729 English translation, [http://books.google.com/books?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA41 at page 41].</ref> and explained why he put his expositions in this form,<ref>Newton, 'Principia', 1729 English translation, [http://books.google.com/books?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA54 at page 54].</ref> remarking also that 'hereby the same thing is performed as by the method of indivisibles'.
 
Because of this, the ''Principia'' has been called "a book dense with the theory and application of the infinitesimal calculus" in modern times<ref>Clifford Truesdell, ''Essays in the History of Mechanics'' (Berlin, 1968), at p.99.</ref> and "lequel est presque tout de ce calcul" ('nearly all of it is of this calculus') in Newton's time.<ref>In the preface to the Marquis de L'Hospital's ''Analyse des Infiniment Petits'' (Paris, 1696).</ref> His use of methods involving "one or more orders of the infinitesimally small" is present in his ''De motu corporum in gyrum'' of 1684<ref>Starting with [[De motu corporum in gyrum#Contents|De motu corporum in gyrum]], see also [http://books.google.com/books?id=uvMGAAAAcAAJ&pg=RA1-PA2 (Latin) Theorem 1].</ref> and in his papers on motion "during the two decades preceding 1684".<ref>D T Whiteside (1970), "The Mathematical principles underlying Newton's Principia Mathematica" in ''Journal for the History of Astronomy'', vol.1, pages 116–138, especially at pages 119–120.</ref>
 
Newton had been reluctant to publish his calculus because he feared controversy and criticism.<ref>Stewart 2009, p.107</ref> He was close to the Swiss mathematician [[Nicolas Fatio de Duillier]]. In 1691, Duillier started to write a new version of Newton's ''Principia'', and corresponded with Leibniz.<ref>Westfall 1980, pp 538–539</ref> In 1693 the relationship between Duillier and Newton deteriorated, and the book was never completed.
 
Starting in 1699, other members of the [[Royal Society]] (of which Newton was a member) accused Leibniz of [[plagiarism]], and the dispute broke out in full force in 1711. The Royal Society proclaimed in a study that it was Newton who was the true discoverer and labelled Leibniz a fraud. This study was cast into doubt when it was later found that Newton himself wrote the study's concluding remarks on Leibniz. Thus began the bitter controversy which marred the lives of both Newton and Leibniz until the latter's death in 1716.<ref>Ball 1908, p. 356ff</ref>
 
Newton is generally credited with the [[Catalon series|generalised binomial theorem]], valid for any exponent. He discovered [[Newton's identities]], [[Newton's method]], classified cubic plane curves ([[polynomials]] of degree three in two [[variable (mathematics)|variables]]), made substantial contributions to the theory of [[finite differences]], and was the first to use fractional indices and to employ [[coordinate geometry]] to derive solutions to [[Diophantine equations]]. He approximated partial sums of the [[harmonic series (mathematics)|harmonic series]] by [[logarithms]] (a precursor to [[Euler's summation formula]]), and was the first to use [[power series]] with confidence and to revert power series. Newton's work on infinite series was inspired by [[Simon Stevin]]'s decimals.<ref>{{citation | last1 = Błaszczyk | first1 = Piotr |last2 = Katz | first2 = Mikhail |author2-link = Mikhail Katz | last3 = Sherry | first3 = David | arxiv = 1202.4153 |doi = 10.1007/s10699-012-9285-8 | issue = |journal = [[Foundations of Science]] | pages = | title = Ten misconceptions from the history of analysis and their debunking | volume = |year = 2012}}</ref>
 
He was appointed [[Lucasian Professor of Mathematics]] in 1669 on Barrow's recommendation. In that day, any fellow of Cambridge or Oxford was required to become an ordained [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] priest. However, the terms of the Lucasian professorship required that the holder ''not'' be active in the church (presumably so as to have more time for science). Newton argued that this should exempt him from the ordination requirement, and [[Charles II of England|Charles II]], whose permission was needed, accepted this argument. Thus a conflict between Newton's religious views and Anglican orthodoxy was averted.<ref>White 1997, p. 151</ref>
 
==== Optics ====
In 1666, Newton observed that the spectrum of colours exiting a [[Triangular prism (optics)|prism]] is oblong, even when the light ray entering the prism is circular, which is to say, the prism refracts different colours by different angles.<ref name="Whittaker" />  This led him to conclude that colour is a property intrinsic to light—a point which had been debated.
 
[[File:NewtonsTelescopeReplica.jpg|thumb|Replica of Newton's second [[Reflecting telescope]] that he presented to the [[Royal Society]] in 1672<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=KAWwzHlDVksC&dq=history+of+the+telescope&printsec=frontcover |title='&#39;The History of the Telescope'&#39; By Henry C. King, Page 74 |publisher=Google Books |accessdate=16 January 2010|isbn=978-0-486-43265-6|author1=King, Henry C|year=2003}}</ref>]]
From 1670 to 1672, Newton lectured on optics.<ref>{{cite web |last=Newton |first=Isaac |title=Hydrostatics, Optics, Sound and Heat|url=http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-ADD-03970/|publisher=Cambridge University Digital Library|accessdate=10 January 2012}}</ref> During this period he investigated the [[refraction]] of light, demonstrating that the multicoloured spectrum produced by a prism could be recomposed into white light by a [[lens (optics)|lens]] and a second prism.<ref>Ball 1908, p. 324</ref> Modern scholarship has revealed that Newton's analysis and resynthesis of white light owes a debt to [[Corpuscularianism|corpuscular]] alchemy.<ref>[[William R. Newman]],  "Newton's Early Optical Theory and its Debt to Chymistry," in Danielle Jacquart and Michel Hochmann, eds., ''Lumière et vision dans les sciences et dans les arts'' (Geneva: Droz, 2010), pp. 283-307.  A free access online version of this article can be found at [http://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/newton/html/Newton_optics-alchemy_Jacquart_paper.pdf the ''Chymistry of Isaac Newton'' project]</ref>
 
He also showed that the coloured light does not change its properties by separating out a coloured beam and shining it on various objects. Newton noted that regardless of whether it was reflected or scattered or transmitted, it stayed the same colour. Thus, he observed that colour is the result of objects interacting with already-coloured light rather than objects generating the colour themselves. This is known as [[Early life of Isaac Newton#Newton's theory of colour|Newton's theory of colour]].<ref>Ball 1908, p. 325</ref>
 
[[File:Dispersive Prism Illustration.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Illustration of a [[dispersive prism]] decomposing white light into the colours of the spectrum, as discovered by Newton]]
From this work, he concluded that the lens of any [[refracting telescope]] would suffer from the [[dispersion (optics)|dispersion]] of light into colours ([[chromatic aberration]]). As a proof of the concept, he constructed a telescope using a mirror as the [[objective (optics)|objective]] to bypass that problem.<ref name="The Early Period (1608–1672)"/><ref name="White 1997, p170"/> Building the design, the first known functional reflecting telescope, today known as a [[Newtonian telescope]],<ref name="White 1997, p170"/> involved solving the problem of a suitable mirror material and shaping technique. Newton ground his own mirrors out of a custom composition of highly reflective [[speculum metal]], using [[Newton's rings]] to judge the [[quality (philosophy)|quality]] of the optics for his telescopes. In late 1668<ref name="books.google.com"/> he was able to produce this first ''reflecting telescope''. In 1671, the Royal Society asked for a demonstration of his reflecting telescope.<ref>White 1997, p168</ref> Their interest encouraged him to publish his notes ''On Colour'', which he later expanded into his ''[[Opticks]]''. When [[Robert Hooke]] criticised some of Newton's ideas, Newton was so offended that he withdrew from public debate. Newton and Hooke had brief exchanges in 1679–80, when Hooke, appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence, opened up a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions,<ref name="hooke1679nov24"/> which had the effect of stimulating Newton to work out a proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector (see [[Newton's law of universal gravitation#History|Newton's law of universal gravitation – History]] and ''[[De motu corporum in gyrum]]''). But the two men remained generally on poor terms until Hooke's death.<ref>Iliffe, Robert (2007) Newton. A very short introduction, Oxford University Press 2007</ref>
 
[[File:Newton-letter-to-briggs 03.jpg|thumb|right|Facsimile of a 1682 letter from Isaac Newton to Dr William Briggs, commenting on Briggs' "A New Theory of Vision"]]
 
Newton argued that light is composed of particles or corpuscles, which were refracted by accelerating into a denser medium. He verged on soundlike waves to explain the repeated pattern of reflection and transmission by thin films (Opticks Bk.II, Props. 12), but still retained his theory of 'fits' that disposed corpuscles to be reflected or transmitted (Props.13). Later physicists instead favoured a purely wavelike explanation of light to account for the [[interference (wave propagation)|interference]] patterns, and the general phenomenon of [[diffraction]]. Today's [[quantum mechanics]], [[photons]] and the idea of [[wave–particle duality]] bear only a minor resemblance to Newton's understanding of light.
 
In his ''Hypothesis of Light'' of 1675, Newton [[wikt:posit|posited]] the existence of the [[luminiferous aether|ether]] to transmit forces between particles. The contact with the [[theosophist]] [[Henry More]], revived his interest in alchemy. He replaced the ether with occult forces based on [[Hermeticism|Hermetic]] ideas of attraction and repulsion between particles. [[John Maynard Keynes]], who acquired many of Newton's writings on alchemy, stated that "Newton was not the first of the age of reason: He was the last of the magicians."<ref name="The Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes Volume X"/> Newton's interest in alchemy cannot be isolated from his contributions to science.<ref name="More"/> This was at a time when there was no clear distinction between alchemy and science. Had he not relied on the [[occult]] idea of [[action at a distance (physics)|action at a distance]], across a vacuum, he might not have developed his theory of gravity. (See also [[Isaac Newton's occult studies]].)
 
In 1704, Newton published ''[[Opticks]]'', in which he expounded his corpuscular theory of light. He considered light to be made up of extremely subtle corpuscles, that ordinary matter was made of grosser corpuscles and speculated that through a kind of alchemical transmutation "Are not gross Bodies and Light convertible into one another, ...and may not Bodies receive much of their Activity from the Particles of Light which enter their Composition?"<ref name="Newton's Alchemy and His Theory of Matter"/> Newton also constructed a primitive form of a frictional [[electrostatic generator]], using a glass globe (Opticks, 8th Query).
 
In an article entitled "Newton, prisms, and the 'opticks' of tunable lasers"<ref name="OPN1"/> it is indicated that Newton in his book ''[[Opticks]]'' was the first to show a diagram using a prism as a beam expander. In the same book he describes, via diagrams, the use of multiple-prism arrays. Some 278 years after Newton's discussion, [[beam expander#Multiple-prism beam expanders|multiple-prism beam expanders]] became central to the development of [[laser linewidth|narrow-linewidth]] [[tunable laser]]s. Also, the use of these prismatic beam expanders led to the [[multiple-prism dispersion theory]].<ref name=OPN1/>
 
Subsequent to Newton, much has been amended. Young and Fresnel combined Newton's particle theory with Huygen's wave theory to show that colour is the visible manifestation of light's wavelength. Science also slowly came to realise the difference between perception of colour and mathematisable optics. The German poet, [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], could not shake the Newtonian foundation but "one hole Goethe did find in Newton's armour, ... Newton had committed himself to the doctrine that refraction without colour was impossible. He therefore thought that the object-glasses of telescopes must for ever remain imperfect, achromatism and refraction being incompatible. This inference was proved by [[John Dollond |
Dollond]] to be wrong."<ref>Tyndall, John. (1880). ''Popular Science Monthly'' Volume 17, July. [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Popular_Science_Monthly/Volume_17/July_1880/Goethe's_Farbenlehre:_Theory_of_Colors_II]</ref>
 
==== Mechanics and gravitation ====
[[File:NewtonsPrincipia.jpg|thumb|Newton's own copy of his ''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia]]'', with hand-written corrections for the second edition]]
{{further2|[[Writing of Principia Mathematica]]}}
 
In 1679, Newton returned to his work on ([[celestial mechanics|celestial]]) mechanics, i.e., gravitation and its effect on the orbits of [[planet]]s, with reference to [[Kepler's laws]] of planetary motion. This followed stimulation by a brief exchange of letters in 1679–80 with Hooke, who had been appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence, and who opened a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions.<ref name=hooke1679nov24 /> Newton's reawakening interest in astronomical matters received further stimulus by the appearance of a comet in the winter of 1680–1681, on which he corresponded with [[John Flamsteed]].<ref>{{harvnb|Westfall|1980|p=391–2}}</ref> After the exchanges with Hooke, Newton worked out a proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector (see [[Newton's law of universal gravitation#History|Newton's law of universal gravitation – History]] and De motu corporum in gyrum). Newton communicated his results to [[Edmond Halley]] and to the Royal Society in ''[[De motu corporum in gyrum]]'', a tract written on about 9 sheets which was copied into the Royal Society's Register Book in December 1684.<ref>D T Whiteside (ed.), 'Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton', vol.6, 1684–1691, Cambridge University Press 1974, at page 30.</ref> This tract contained the nucleus that Newton developed and expanded to form the ''Principia''.
 
The ''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia]]'' was published on 5 July 1687 with encouragement and financial help from [[Edmond Halley]]. In this work, Newton stated the [[Isaac Newton#Laws of motion|three universal laws of motion]] that enabled many of the advances of the [[Industrial Revolution]] which soon followed and were not to be improved upon for more than 200 years, and are still the underpinnings of the non-relativistic technologies of the modern world. He used the Latin word ''gravitas'' (weight) for the effect that would become known as [[gravity]], and defined the law of [[Newton's law of universal gravitation|universal gravitation]].
 
In the same work, Newton presented a calculus-like method of geometrical analysis by 'first and last ratios', gave the first analytical determination (based on [[Boyle's law]]) of the speed of sound in air, inferred the oblateness of the spheroidal figure of the Earth, accounted for the precession of the equinoxes as a result of the Moon's gravitational attraction on the Earth's oblateness, initiated the gravitational study of the [[Lunar theory#Newton|irregularities in the motion of the moon]], provided a theory for the determination of the orbits of comets, and much more.
 
Newton made clear his [[heliocentric]] view of the solar system&nbsp;– developed in a somewhat modern way, because already in the mid-1680s he recognised the "deviation of the Sun" from the centre of gravity of the solar system.<ref>See Curtis Wilson, "The Newtonian achievement in astronomy", pages 233–274 in R Taton & C Wilson (eds) (1989) ''The General History of Astronomy'', Volume, 2A', [http://books.google.com/books?id=rkQKU-wfPYMC&pg=PA233 at page 233].</ref> For Newton, it was not precisely the centre of the Sun or any other body that could be considered at rest, but rather "the common centre of gravity of the Earth, the Sun and all the Planets is to be esteem'd the Centre of the World", and this centre of gravity "either is at rest or moves uniformly forward in a right line" (Newton adopted the "at rest" alternative in view of common consent that the centre, wherever it was, was at rest).<ref>Text quotations are from 1729 translation of Newton's ''Principia'', Book 3 (1729 vol.2) [http://books.google.com/books?id=6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA233 at pages 232–233].</ref>
 
Newton's postulate of an invisible [[action at a distance (physics)|force able to act over vast distances]] led to him being criticised for introducing "[[occult]] agencies" into science.<ref>Edelglass et al., ''Matter and Mind'', ISBN 0-940262-45-2. p. 54</ref> Later, in the second edition of the ''Principia'' (1713), Newton firmly rejected such criticisms in a concluding [[General Scholium]], writing that it was enough that the phenomena implied a gravitational attraction, as they did; but they did not so far indicate its cause, and it was both unnecessary and improper to frame hypotheses of things that were not implied by the phenomena. (Here Newton used what became his famous expression ''"hypotheses non fingo"<ref>On the meaning and origins of this expression, see Kirsten Walsh, [https://blogs.otago.ac.nz/emxphi/2010/10/does-newton-feign-an-hypothesis/ Does Newton feign an hypothesis?], [https://blogs.otago.ac.nz/emxphi/ Early Modern Experimental Philosophy], 18 October 2010.</ref>'').
 
With the ''Principia'', Newton became internationally recognised.<ref>Westfall 1980. Chapter 11.</ref> He acquired a circle of admirers, including the [[Switzerland|Swiss]]-born mathematician [[Nicolas Fatio de Duillier]], with whom he formed an intense relationship. This abruptly ended in 1693, and at the same time Newton suffered a [[nervous breakdown]].<ref>{{harvnb|Westfall| 1980|p= 493–497}} on the friendship with Fatio, pp 531–540 on Newton's breakdown.</ref>
 
=== Classification of cubics ===
Besides the work of Newton and others on calculus, the first important demonstration of the power of analytic geometry was Newton's classification of cubic curves in the Euclidean plane in the late 1600s. He divided them into four types, satisfying different equations, and in 1717 [[James Stirling (mathematician)|Stirling]], probably with Newton's help, proved that every cubic was one of these four. Newton also claimed that the four types could be obtained by plane projection from one of them, and this was proved in 1731.<ref>''Conics and Cubics,'' Robert Bix, Springer Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics, 2nd edition, 2006, Springer Verlag.</ref>
 
=== Later life ===
[[File:Newton 25.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Isaac Newton in old age in 1712, portrait by [[Sir James Thornhill]]]]
{{Main|Later life of Isaac Newton}}
In the 1690s, Newton wrote a number of [[religious tracts]] dealing with the literal and symbolic interpretation of the Bible. A manuscript Newton sent to [[John Locke]] in which he disputed the fidelity of [[1 John 5:7]] and its fidelity to the original manuscripts of the New Testament, remained unpublished until 1785.<ref>[http://www.libraries.psu.edu/tas/locke/mss/c1690.html John Locke Manuscripts -- Chronological Listing: 1690]</ref><ref>John C. Attig, [http://www.libraries.psu.edu/tas/locke/bib/ch5c.html#01160 John Locke Bibliography — Chapter 5, Religion, 1751-1900]</ref>
 
Even though a number of authors have claimed that the work might have been an indication that Newton disputed the belief in [[Trinity]]; others assure that Newton did question the passage but never denied Trinity as such. His biographer, scientist [[Sir David Brewster]], who compiled his manuscripts for over 20 years, wrote about the controversy in well-known book''Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton'', where he explains that Newton questioned the veracity of those passages, but he never denied the doctrine of Trinity as such. Brewster states that Newton was never known as an [[Arianism|Arian]] during his lifetime, it was first [[William Whiston]] (an Arian) who argued that ''"Sir Isaac Newton was so hearty for the Baptists, as well as for the Eusebians or Arians, that he sometimes suspected these two were the two witnesses in the Revelations,"'' while other like [[Hopton Haynes]] (a Mint employee and [[Humanitarian]]), "mentioned to [[Richard Baron]], that Newton held the same doctrine as himself".<ref>David Brewster. "Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton:" p.268.</ref>
 
Later works{{spaced ndash}}''[[The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended]]'' (1728) and ''Observations Upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John'' (1733){{spaced ndash}}were published after his death. He also devoted a great deal of time to [[alchemy]] (see above).<!--old cite was (Westfall 1980, pp. 530–1) "notes that Newton apparently abandoned his alchemical researches"-->
 
Newton was also a member of the [[Parliament of England]] for [[Cambridge University (UK Parliament constituency)|Cambridge University]] in 1689–90 and 1701–2, but according to some accounts his only comments were to complain about a cold draught in the chamber and request that the window be closed.<ref>White 1997, p. 232</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=E.R. |last1=Edwards |first2=Geoffrey |last2=Jaggar |chapter=Newton, Isaac (1642-1727) |title=The History of Parliament: the House of Commons 1660-1690 |editor-first=B.D. |editor-last=Henning |year=1983 |url=http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1660-1690/member/newton-isaac-1642-1727 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=D.W. |last=Hayton |chapter=Newton, Isaac (1642-1727) |title=The History of Parliament: the House of Commons 1690-1715 |editor1-first=D. |editor1-last=Hayton |editor2-first=E. |editor2-last=Cruickshanks |editor3-first=S. |editor3-last=Handley |year=2002 |url=http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1690-1715/member/newton-isaac-1642-1727 }}</ref>
 
Newton moved to London to take up the post of warden of the [[Royal Mint]] in 1696, a position that he had obtained through the patronage of [[Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax]], then [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]. He took charge of England's great recoining, somewhat treading on the toes of Lord Lucas, Governor of the Tower (and securing the job of deputy [[comptroller]] of the temporary Chester branch for Edmond Halley). Newton became perhaps the best-known [[Master of the Mint]] upon the death of [[Thomas Neale]] in 1699, a position Newton held for the last 30 years of his life.<ref name="Mint">{{cite episode |series=Science Friday |title=Isaac Newton: Physicist And ... Crime Fighter? |airdate=5 June 2009 |transcripturl=http://www.npr.org/templates/transcript/transcript.php?storyId=105012144 |episodelink=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=105012144 |network=NPR}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Newton and the counterfeiter : the unknown detective career of the world's greatest scientist |author=Thomas Levenson |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-15-101278-7 |oclc=276340857}}</ref> These appointments were intended as [[sinecure]]s, but Newton took them seriously, retiring from his Cambridge duties in 1701, and exercising his power to reform the currency and punish [[debasement|clippers]] and counterfeiters. As Master of the Mint in 1717 in the "[[Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Law of Queen Anne]]" Newton moved the [[Pound Sterling]] ''de facto'' from the [[silver standard]] to the [[gold standard]] by setting the bimetallic relationship between gold coins and the silver penny in favour of gold. This caused silver sterling coin to be melted and shipped out of Britain. Newton was made President of the [[Royal Society]] in 1703 and an associate of the French [[French Academy of Sciences|Académie des Sciences]]. In his position at the Royal Society, Newton made an enemy of [[John Flamsteed]], the [[Astronomer Royal]], by prematurely publishing Flamsteed's ''Historia Coelestis Britannica'', which Newton had used in his studies.<ref>White 1997, p.317</ref>
[[File:ENG COA Newton.svg|thumb|upright|Personal coat of arms of Sir Isaac Newton<ref name="Coat of arms of Isaac Newton"/>]]
 
In April 1705, Queen Anne [[Knight Bachelor|knighted]] Newton during a royal visit to Trinity College, Cambridge. The knighthood is likely to have been motivated by political considerations connected with the [[Parliamentary elections|Parliamentary election]] in May 1705, rather than any recognition of Newton's scientific work or services as Master of the Mint.<ref>"The Queen's 'great Assistance' to Newton's election was his knighting, an honor bestowed not for his contributions to science, nor for his service at the Mint, but for the greater glory of party politics in the election of 1705." Westfall 1994 p.245</ref> Newton was the second scientist to be knighted, after Sir [[Francis Bacon]].
 
Towards the end of his life, Newton took up residence at [[Cranbury Park]], near [[Winchester]] with his niece and her husband, until his death in 1727.<ref name = "Yonge6">{{cite web|last=[[Charlotte M. Yonge|Yonge]] |first=Charlotte M. |title=Cranbury and Brambridge|url=http://www.online-literature.com/charlotte-yonge/john-keble/6/ |year= 1898|work=[[John Keble]]'s Parishes&nbsp;– Chapter 6 |publisher=www.online-literature.com|accessdate=23 September 2009}}</ref> His half-niece, [[Catherine Barton Conduitt]],<ref>{{harvnb|Westfall| 1980|p=44}}</ref> served as his hostess in social affairs at his house on [[Jermyn Street]] in London; he was her "very loving Uncle,"<ref>{{harvnb|Westfall| 1980|p=595}}</ref> according to his letter to her when she was recovering from [[smallpox]].
 
Newton died in his sleep in London on 20 March 1727 ([[Old Style and New Style dates|OS]] 20 March 1726; [[Old Style and New Style dates|NS]] 31 March 1727)<ref name="OSNS"/> and was buried in [[Westminster Abbey]]. [[Voltaire]] was present at his funeral and praised the British for honoring a scientist of [[heretical]] religious beliefs with burial there. A bachelor, he had divested much of his estate to relatives during his last years, and died [[intestacy|intestate]]. After his death, Newton's hair was examined and found to contain [[mercury (element)|mercury]], probably resulting from his alchemical pursuits. [[Mercury poisoning]] could explain Newton's eccentricity in late life.<ref name="Newton, Isaac (1642–1727)"/>
 
=== After death ===
 
==== Fame ====
The mathematician [[Joseph Louis Lagrange|Joseph-Louis Lagrange]] often said that Newton was the greatest genius who ever lived, and once added that Newton was also "the most fortunate, for we cannot find more than once a system of the world to establish."<ref>Fred L. Wilson, ''History of Science: Newton'' citing: Delambre, M. "Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de M. le comte J. L. Lagrange," ''Oeuvres de Lagrange'' I. Paris, 1867, p. xx.</ref> English poet [[Alexander Pope]] was moved by Newton's accomplishments to write the famous [[epitaph]]:
<blockquote>
Nature and nature's laws lay hid in night;<br />
God said "Let Newton be" and all was light.</blockquote>
 
Newton himself had been rather more modest of his own achievements, famously writing in a letter to [[Robert Hooke]] in February 1676:
<blockquote>If I have seen further it is by [[standing on the shoulders of giants]].<ref>Letter from Isaac Newton to Robert Hooke, 5 February 1676, as transcribed in Jean-Pierre Maury (1992) ''Newton: Understanding the Cosmos'', New Horizons</ref></blockquote>
 
Two writers think that the above quote, written at a time when Newton and Hooke were in dispute over optical discoveries, was an oblique attack on Hooke (said to have been short and hunchbacked), rather than{{spaced ndash}}or in addition to{{spaced ndash}}a statement of modesty.<ref>John Gribbin (2002) ''Science: A History 1543–2001'', p 164.</ref><ref>White 1997, p187.</ref>  On the other hand, the widely known proverb about [[standing on the shoulders of giants]] published among others by 17th-century poet [[George Herbert]] (a former orator of the University of Cambridge and fellow of Trinity College) in his ''Jacula Prudentum'' (1651), had as its main point that "a dwarf on a giant's shoulders sees farther of the two", and so its effect as an analogy would place Newton himself rather than Hooke as the 'dwarf'.
 
In a later memoir, Newton wrote:
<blockquote>I do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea-shore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me.<ref>Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton (1855) by Sir David Brewster (Volume II. Ch. 27)</ref></blockquote>
 
In 1816 a tooth said to have belonged to Isaac Newton was sold for £730<ref>{{cite journal|date=16 January 1881|title=Silly relic-worship|journal=The New York Times|pages=10|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9E02E4DE1730EE3ABC4E52DFB766838A699FDE|accessdate=2009-07-12}}</ref> ({{smallcaps|us}}$3,633) in London to an aristocrat who passed to have it set in a ring.<ref name=Guiness>{{cite book|title=Guinness World Records 2002|url=http://www.amazon.com/Guinness-World-Records-Antonia-Cunningham/dp/product-description/0553583786|accessdate=2009-07-12}}</ref> The ''[[Guinness World Records]] 2002'' classified it as the most valuable tooth, which would value approximately £25,000 ({{smallcaps|us}}$35,700) in late 2001's terms.<ref name=Guiness/>  Who has bought it and to whom it currently pertains are mysteries.
 
[[Albert Einstein]] kept a picture of Newton on his study wall alongside ones of [[Michael Faraday]] and [[James Clerk Maxwell]].<ref>"Einstein's Heroes: Imagining the World through the Language of Mathematics", by Robyn Arianrhod UQP, reviewed by Jane Gleeson-White, 10 November 2003, The Sydney Morning Herald</ref> Newton remains influential to today's scientists, as demonstrated by a 2005 survey of members of Britain's [[Royal Society]] (formerly headed by Newton) asking who had the greater effect on the history of science, Newton or Einstein. Royal Society scientists deemed Newton to have made the greater overall contribution.<ref name="royalsoc.ac.uk"/> In 1999, an opinion poll of 100 of today's leading physicists voted Einstein the "greatest physicist ever;" with Newton the runner-up, while a parallel survey of rank-and-file physicists by the site PhysicsWeb gave the top spot to Newton.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/541840.stm |title=Opinion poll. Einstein voted "greatest physicist ever" by leading physicists; Newton runner-up|publisher=BBC News |date=29 November 1999 |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref>
 
==== Commemorations ====
[[File:Isaac Newton statue.jpg|thumb|upright|Newton statue on display at the [[Oxford University Museum of Natural History]]]]
 
Newton's monument (1731) can be seen in [[Westminster Abbey]], at the north of the entrance to the choir against the choir screen, near his tomb. It was executed by the sculptor [[Michael Rysbrack]] (1694–1770) in white and grey marble with design by the architect [[William Kent]]. The monument features a figure of Newton reclining on top of a sarcophagus, his right elbow resting on several of his great books and his left hand pointing to a scroll with a mathematical design. Above him is a pyramid and a celestial globe showing the signs of the Zodiac and the path of the comet of 1680. A relief panel depicts [[putti]] using instruments such as a telescope and prism.<ref name="wmabbey"/> The Latin inscription on the base translates as:
<blockquote>Here is buried Isaac Newton, Knight, who by a strength of mind almost divine, and mathematical principles peculiarly his own, explored the course and figures of the planets, the paths of comets, the tides of the sea, the dissimilarities in rays of light, and, what no other scholar has previously imagined, the properties of the colours thus produced. Diligent, sagacious and faithful, in his expositions of nature, antiquity and the holy Scriptures, he vindicated by his philosophy the majesty of God mighty and good, and expressed the simplicity of the Gospel in his manners. Mortals rejoice that there has existed such and so great an ornament of the human race! He was born on 25 December 1642, and died on 20 March 1726/7.&nbsp;— Translation from G.L. Smyth, ''The Monuments and Genii of St. Paul's Cathedral, and of Westminster Abbey'' (1826), ii, 703–4.<ref name="wmabbey"/>
</blockquote>
 
From 1978 until 1988, an image of Newton designed by Harry Ecclestone appeared on Series D £1 [[banknotes of the pound sterling|banknotes]] issued by the [[Bank of England]] (the last £1 notes to be issued by the Bank of England). Newton was shown on the reverse of the notes holding a book and accompanied by a telescope, a prism and a map of the [[Solar System]].<ref name="bankofengland"/>
 
[[File:Newton by Eduardo Paolozzi 2003-03-10.jpg|thumb|left|[[Eduardo Paolozzi]]'s ''Newton, after William Blake'' (1995), outside the British Library]]
A statue of Isaac Newton, looking at an apple at his feet, can be seen at the [[Oxford University Museum of Natural History]]. A large bronze statue, ''Newton, after William Blake'', by [[Eduardo Paolozzi]], dated 1995 and inspired by [[William Blake|Blake]]'s [[Newton (Blake)|etching]], dominates the piazza of the [[British Library]] in London.
 
=== In popular culture ===
{{Main|Isaac Newton in popular culture}}
 
== Personal life ==
Newton never married. Although it is impossible to verify, it is commonly believed that he died a [[Virginity|virgin]], as has been commented on by such figures as mathematician [[Charles Hutton]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A Philosophical and Mathematical Dictionary Containing... Memoirs of the Lives and Writings of the Most Eminent Authors, Volume 2 |last=Hutton |first=Charles |authorlink=Charles Hutton |year=1815 |page=100 |url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=_xk2AAAAQAAJ&pg=PA100&lpg=PA100&dq=Charles+Hutton+Isaac+Newton+constitutional+indifference&source=bl&ots=gxI1T-5UzL&sig=NJHnmCqkPwNalnOSrUXZZgkfODs&hl=en#v=onepage&q=Charles%20Hutton%20Isaac%20Newton%20constitutional%20indifference&f=false |accessdate=11 September 2012}}</ref> economist [[John Maynard Keynes]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Extras/Keynes_Newton.html |title=Newton: the Man |author=John Maynard Keynes |publisher=[[University of St Andrews]] School of Mathematics and Statistics |accessdate=11 September 2012}}</ref> and physicist [[Carl Sagan]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Cosmos |last=Carl |first=Sagan |authorlink=Carl Sagan |year=1980 |publisher=Random House |location=New York |isbn=0394502949 |page= |url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=_-XhL6_xsVkC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq=Isaac+Newton+virgin&source=bl&ots=pfxDt6lG8I&sig=u4GtOW8G0jCFdrppKL2o0j9ZAKU&hl=en&sa=X&ei=jrJJULeTIYnDigLs14Fo&ved=0CEMQ6AEwAzge#v=onepage&q=Isaac%20Newton%20virgin&f=false |accessdate=11 September 2012}}</ref>
 
French writer and philosopher [[Voltaire]], who was in London at the time of Newton's funeral, claimed to have verified the fact, writing that "I have had that confirmed by the doctor and the surgeon who were with him when he died".<ref>''Letters on England'', 14, pp. 68-70, as referenced in the footnote for the quote in p. 6 of James Gleick's biography, ''Isaac Newton''</ref> In 1733, Voltaire publicly stated that Newton "had neither passion nor weakness; he never went near any woman".<ref>{{cite book |title=The Newton Handbook |last=Gjertsen |first=Derek |year=1986 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=0710202792 |page=105 |url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=cqIOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA105&lpg=PA105&dq=Isaac+Newton+virgin&source=bl&ots=Sf2QL1yV2J&sig=0m7VW3Ca0_jKFl-k-P8FNAATuaY&hl=en#v=onepage&q=Isaac%20Newton%20virgin&f=false |accessdate=11 September 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Newton: The Making of Genius |last=Fara |first=Patricia |authorlink=Patricia Fara |year=2011 |publisher=Pan Macmillan |isbn=1447204530 |page=}}</ref>
 
Newton did have a close friendship with the Swiss mathematician [[Nicolas Fatio de Duillier]], whom he met in London around 1690.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.clas.ufl.edu/users/ufhatch/pages/13-NDFE/newton/05-newton-timeline-m.htm |title=Newton Timeline |author=Professor Robert A. Hatch, University of Florida |accessdate=13 August 2012}}</ref> Their friendship came to an unexplained end in 1693. Some of their correspondence has survived.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://janus.lib.cam.ac.uk/db/node.xsp?id=CV%2FPers%2FDuillier%2C%20Nicholas%20Fatio%20de%20%281664-1753%29%20mathematician%20and%20natural%20philosopher |title=Duillier, Nicholas Fatio de (1664-1753) mathematician and natural philosopher |publisher=Janus database |accessdate=22 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oac.cdlib.org/search?style=oac4;Institution=UCLA::Clark%20%28William%20Andrews%29%20Memorial%20Library;idT=4859632 |title=Collection Guide: Fatio de Duillier, Nicolas [Letters to Isaac Newton] |publisher=Online Archive of California |accessdate=22 March 2013}}</ref>
 
Newton was one of many people who lost heavily when the [[South Sea Company]] collapsed.  Their most significant trade was slaves and according to his niece, he lost around £20,000.
 
== Religious views ==
{{Main|Isaac Newton's religious views}}
[[File:Isaac Newton grave in Westminster Abbey.jpg|thumb|upright|Newton's tomb in [[Westminster Abbey]]]]Although born into an [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] family, by his thirties Newton held a Christian faith that, had it been made public, would not have been considered orthodox by mainstream [[Christianity]];<ref name="Newton - 1">[[Richard S. Westfall]] - [[Indiana University]] {{cite book | url =http://galileo.rice.edu/Catalog/NewFiles/newton.html  | title = The Galileo Project  | publisher = ([[Rice University]]) | accessdate = 2008-07-05<!-- , 2012-02-07-->}}</ref> in recent times he has been described as a [[heresy|heretic]].<ref name="heretic">{{cite journal |last=Snobelen |first=Stephen D. |authorlink=Stephen Snobelen | title=Isaac Newton, heretic : the strategies of a Nicodemite |journal=British Journal for the History of Science |volume=32 | pages=381–419 | year =1999 | url =http://www.isaac-newton.org/heretic.pdf |format=PDF|doi=10.1017/S0007087499003751 |issue=4 }}</ref>
 
In Newton's eyes, worshipping Christ as God was [[idolatry]], to him the fundamental sin.<ref name="westfall2"/> Historian [[Stephen Snobelen|Stephen D. Snobelen]] says of Newton, "Isaac Newton was a [[heresy|heretic]]. But&nbsp;... he never made a public declaration of his private faith—which the orthodox would have deemed extremely radical. He hid his faith so well that scholars are still unravelling his personal beliefs."<ref name="heretic"/> Snobelen concludes that Newton was at least a [[Socinian]] sympathiser (he owned and had thoroughly read at least eight Socinian books), possibly an [[Arianism|Arian]] and almost certainly an [[anti-trinitarian]].<ref name="heretic"/> During and after the [[English Civil War]] (1642–1651), a period notable for its religious intolerance, there are few public expressions of Newton's radical views, most notably his refusal to receive holy orders and his refusal, on his death bed, to receive the [[Anointing of the Sick]] sacrament when it was offered to him.{{citation needed|date=January 2014}}
 
In a minority view, T.C. Pfizenmaier argues that Newton held the [[Eastern Orthodox]] view on the Trinity.<ref name="Was Isaac Newton an Arian?"/> However, this type of view 'has lost support of late with the availability of Newton's theological papers',<ref>{{cite journal|last=Snobelen |first=Stephen D. |title=Isaac Newton, heretic: the strategies of a Nicodemite |journal=British Journal for the History of Science |volume=32|issue=4 |pages=381–419 [383] |year=1999|url=http://www.isaac-newton.org/heretic.pdf |format=PDF|doi=10.1017/S0007087499003751 }}</ref> and now most scholars identify Newton as an [[Nontrinitarianism|Antitrinitarian]] [[monotheist]].<ref name="heretic"/><ref name="dulles"/>
 
Although the laws of motion and universal gravitation became Newton's best-known discoveries, he warned against using them to view the Universe as a mere machine, as if akin to a great clock. He said, "Gravity explains the motions of the planets, but it cannot explain who set the planets in motion. God governs all things and knows all that is or can be done."<ref name="tiner"/>
 
Along with his scientific fame, Newton's studies of the Bible and of the early [[Church Fathers]] were also noteworthy. Newton wrote works on [[textual criticism]], most notably ''[[An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture]]''. He placed the crucifixion of [[Jesus Christ]] at 3 April, AD 33, which agrees with one traditionally accepted date.<ref>John P. Meier, ''[[John P. Meier#A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus|A Marginal Jew]]'', v. 1, pp. 382–402 after narrowing the years to 30 or 33, provisionally judges 30 most likely.</ref> He also tried unsuccessfully to find [[Bible code|hidden messages within the Bible]].
 
He believed in a rationally [[immanent]] world, but he rejected the [[hylozoism]] implicit in [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz|Leibniz]] and [[Baruch Spinoza]]. The ordered and dynamically informed Universe could be understood, and must be understood, by an active reason. In his correspondence, Newton claimed that in writing the ''Principia'' "I had an eye upon such Principles as might work with considering men for the belief of a Deity".<ref>Newton to [[Richard Bentley]] 10 December 1692, in Turnbull et al. (1959–77), vol 3, p. 233.</ref> He saw evidence of design in the system of the world: "Such a wonderful uniformity in the planetary system must be allowed the effect of choice". But Newton insisted that divine intervention would eventually be required to reform the system, due to the slow growth of instabilities.<ref>Opticks, 2nd Ed 1706. Query 31.</ref> For this, Leibniz lampooned him: "God Almighty wants to wind up his watch from time to time: otherwise it would cease to move. He had not, it seems, sufficient foresight to make it a perpetual motion."<ref>H. G. Alexander (ed) ''The Leibniz-Clarke correspondence'', [[Manchester University Press]], 1998, p. 11.</ref> Newton's position was vigorously defended by his follower [[Samuel Clarke]] in a [[Leibniz-Clarke correspondence|famous correspondence]]. A century later, [[Pierre-Simon Laplace]]'s work "[[Celestial Mechanics]]" had a natural explanation for why the planet orbits don't require periodic divine intervention.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Neil Degrasse Tyson |work=Natural History Magazine |date=November 2005 |title=The Perimeter of Ignorance |url=http://www.haydenplanetarium.org/tyson/read/2005/11/01/the-perimeter-of-ignorance}}</ref>
 
=== Effect on religious thought ===
Newton and [[Robert Boyle]]'s approach to the [[mechanical philosophy]] was promoted by [[rationalist]] pamphleteers as a viable alternative to the [[pantheism|pantheists]] and [[enthusiasm|enthusiasts]], and was accepted hesitantly by orthodox preachers as well as dissident preachers like the [[latitudinarian]]s.<ref name="The Newtonians and the English Revolution: 1689–1720"/> The clarity and simplicity of science was seen as a way to combat the emotional and [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] superlatives of both [[superstition|superstitious]] enthusiasm and the threat of [[atheism]],<ref name="Science and Religion in Seventeenth-Century England"/> and at the same time, the second wave of English [[deism|deists]] used Newton's discoveries to demonstrate the possibility of a "Natural Religion".
[[File:Newton-WilliamBlake.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Newton (Blake)|Newton]]'', by [[William Blake]]; here, Newton is depicted critically as a "divine geometer". This copy of the work is currently held by the [[Tate Collection]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.blakearchive.org/exist/blake/archive/copyinfo.xq?copyid=but306.1| title = Newton, object 1 (Butlin 306) "Newton"| date = September 25, 2013|publisher = [[William Blake Archive]]}}</ref> ]]
 
The attacks made against pre-[[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] "magical thinking", and the [[Christian mysticism|mystical elements of Christianity]], were given their foundation with Boyle's mechanical conception of the Universe. Newton gave Boyle's ideas their completion through [[mathematical proof]]s and, perhaps more importantly, was very successful in popularising them.<ref name="Enlightenment and Religion: Rational Dissent in eighteenth-century Britain"/> Newton refashioned the world governed by an interventionist God into a world crafted by a God that designs along rational and universal principles.<ref name="The Faith of Reason: The Idea of Progress in the French Enlightenment"/> These principles were available for all people to discover, allowed people to pursue their own aims fruitfully in this life, not [[afterlife|the next]], and to perfect themselves with their own rational powers.<ref name="A Discourse on Disenchantment: Reflections on Politics and Technology"/>
 
Newton saw God as the master creator whose existence could not be denied in the face of the grandeur of all creation.<ref>Principia, Book III; cited in; Newton's Philosophy of Nature: Selections from his writings, p. 42, ed. H.S. Thayer, Hafner Library of Classics, NY, 1953.</ref><ref>A Short Scheme of the True Religion, manuscript quoted in Memoirs of the Life, Writings and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton by Sir David Brewster, Edinburgh, 1850; cited in; ibid, p. 65.</ref><ref>Webb, R.K. ed. Knud Haakonssen. "The emergence of Rational Dissent." Enlightenment and Religion: Rational Dissent in eighteenth-century Britain. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 1996. p19.</ref> His spokesman, Clarke, rejected Leibniz' [[theodicy]] which cleared God from the responsibility for ''[[Problem of evil|l'origine du mal]]'' by making God removed from participation in his creation, since as Clarke pointed out, such a deity would be a king in name only, and but one step away from atheism.<ref>H. G. Alexander (ed) ''The Leibniz-Clarke correspondence'', Manchester University Press, 1998, p. 14.</ref> But the unforeseen [[Christian theology|theological]] consequence of the success of Newton's system over the next century was to reinforce the [[deism|deist]] position advocated by Leibniz.<ref>Westfall, 1958 p201.</ref>
The understanding of the world was now brought down to the level of simple human reason, and humans, as Odo Marquard argued, became responsible for the correction and elimination of evil.<ref>Marquard, Odo. "Burdened and Disemburdened Man and the Flight into Unindictability," in Farewell to Matters of Principle. Robert M. Wallace trans. London: Oxford UP, 1989.</ref>
 
=== End of the world ===
{{See also|Isaac Newton's occult studies|eschatology}}
In a manuscript he wrote in 1704 in which he describes his attempts to extract scientific information from the Bible, he estimated that the world would end no earlier than 2060. In predicting this he said, "This I mention not to assert when the time of the end shall be, but to put a stop to the rash conjectures of fanciful men who are frequently predicting the time of the end, and by doing so bring the sacred prophesies into discredit as often as their predictions fail."<ref name="Papers Show Isaac Newton's Religious Side, Predict Date of Apocalypse"/>
 
=== Alchemy ===
 
Speculative fiction author [[Fritz Leiber]] said of Newton, "Everyone knows Newton as the great scientist. Few remember that he spent half his life muddling with alchemy, looking for the philosopher's stone. That was the pebble by the seashore he really wanted to find." <ref>Heinlein, ed., p. 208.</ref>
 
== Enlightenment philosophers ==
[[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors&nbsp;– Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principally&nbsp;– as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of [[Nature]] and [[Natural law|Natural Law]] to every physical and social field of the day. In this respect, the lessons of history and the social structures built upon it could be discarded.<ref>Cassels, Alan. Ideology and International Relations in the Modern World. p2.</ref>
 
It was Newton's conception of the Universe based upon Natural and rationally understandable laws that became one of the seeds for Enlightenment ideology.<ref>"Although it was just one of the many factors in the Enlightment, the success of Newtonian physics in providing a mathematical description of an ordered world clearly played a big part in the flowering of this movement in the eighteenth century" John Gribbin (2002) ''Science: A History 1543–2001'', p 241</ref> Locke and [[Voltaire]] applied concepts of Natural Law to political systems advocating intrinsic rights; the [[physiocrat]]s and [[Adam Smith]] applied Natural conceptions of [[psychology]] and self-interest to economic systems; and [[sociology|sociologists]] criticised the current [[social order]] for trying to fit history into Natural models of [[progress (history)|progress]]. [[Monboddo]] and [[Samuel Clarke]] resisted elements of Newton's work, but eventually rationalised it to conform with their strong religious views of nature.
 
== Royal Mint ==
As Warden, and afterwards Master, of the [[Royal Mint]], Newton estimated that 20 percent of the coins taken in during The [[Great Recoinage of 1696]] were [[counterfeit]]. Counterfeiting was [[High treason in the United Kingdom|high treason]], punishable by the felon's being [[hanged, drawn and quartered]]. Despite this, convicting the most flagrant criminals could be extremely difficult. However, Newton proved to be equal to the task.<ref>White 1997, p. 259</ref> Disguised as a habitué of bars and taverns, he gathered much of that evidence himself.<ref>White 1997, p. 267</ref> For all the barriers placed to prosecution, and separating the branches of government, [[English law]] still had ancient and formidable customs of authority. Newton had himself made a [[justice of the peace]] in all the home counties—there is a draft of a letter regarding this matter stuck into Newton's personal first edition of his ''Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica'' which he must have been amending at the time.<ref>{{cite web|last=Newton|first=Isaac|title=Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica|url=http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/PR-ADV-B-00039-00001/|publisher=Cambridge University Digital Library|accessdate=10 January 2012|pages=265–266}}</ref> Then he conducted more than 100 cross-examinations of witnesses, informers, and suspects between June 1698 and Christmas 1699. Newton successfully prosecuted 28 coiners.<ref>Westfall 2007, p.73</ref>
 
One of Newton's cases as the King's attorney was against [[William Chaloner]].<ref name="White 1997, p 269"/> Chaloner's schemes included setting up phony conspiracies of Catholics and then turning in the hapless conspirators whom he had entrapped. Chaloner made himself rich enough to posture as a gentleman. Petitioning Parliament, Chaloner accused the Mint of providing tools to counterfeiters (a charge also made by others). He proposed that he be allowed to inspect the Mint's processes in order to improve them. He petitioned Parliament to adopt his plans for a coinage that could not be counterfeited, while at the same time striking false coins.<ref>Westfall 1994, p 229</ref> Newton put Chaloner on trial for counterfeiting and had him sent to Newgate Prison in September 1697. But Chaloner had friends in high places, who helped him secure an acquittal and his release.<ref name="White 1997, p 269"/> Newton put him on trial a second time with conclusive evidence. Chaloner was convicted of high treason and hanged, drawn and quartered on 23 March 1699 at [[Tyburn, London|Tyburn gallows]].<ref>{{harvnb|Westfall| 1980|p=571–5}}</ref>
 
As a result of a report written by Newton on 21 September 1717 to the Lords Commissioners of His Majesty's Treasury the bimetallic relationship between gold coins and silver coins was changed by Royal proclamation on 22 December 1717, forbidding the exchange of gold guineas for more than 21 silver shillings.<ref>[http://www.pierre-marteau.com/editions/1701-25-mint-reports/report-1717-09-25.html On the Value of Gold and Silver in European Currencies and the Consequences on the World-wide Gold- and Silver-Trade], Sir Isaac Newton, 21 September 1717.</ref><ref>By The King, A Proclamation Declaring the Rates at which Gold shall be current in Payments [http://www.archive.org/details/numismaticser1v05royauoft reproduced in the numismatic chronicle and journal of the Royal Numismatic Society, Vol V., April 1842 - January 1843]</ref>  This inadvertently resulted in a silver shortage as silver coins were used to pay for imports, while exports were paid for in gold, effectively moving Britain from the silver standard to its first gold standard. It is a matter of debate as whether he intended to do this or not.<ref>http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/3020836?uid=3738032&uid=2129&uid=2&uid=70&uid=4&sid=21101668938967</ref> It has been argued that Newton conceived of his work at the Mint as a continuation of his alchemical work.<ref>http://gtresearchnews.gatech.edu/newsrelease/newton.htm</ref>
 
== Laws of motion ==
{{Classical mechanics|cTopic=Scientists}}
{{Main|Newton's laws of motion}}
 
In the ''Principia'', Newton gives the famous three laws of motion, stated here in modern form.
 
''Newton's First Law'' (also known as the Law of [[Inertia]]) states that an object at rest tends to stay at rest and that an object in uniform motion tends to stay in uniform motion unless acted upon by a net external force. The meaning of this law is the existence of reference frames (called inertial frames) where objects not acted upon by forces move in uniform motion (in particular, they may be at rest).
 
''Newton's Second Law'' states that an applied force, <math>\mathbf{F}</math>, on an object equals the rate of change of its momentum, <math>\mathbf{p}</math>, with time. Mathematically, this is expressed as
:<math> \mathbf{F} = \frac{\mathrm{d}\mathbf{p}}{\mathrm{\mathrm{d}}t} = \frac{\mathrm{d} (m\mathbf{v})}{\mathrm{\mathrm{d}}t}.</math>
 
Since the law applies only to systems of constant mass,<!-- The second law applies only to constant-mass systems. You cannot apply the product rule to the momentum form. See the citation. --><ref name=Halliday>{{cite book|last=Halliday|coauthors=Resnick|title=Physics|volume=1|pages=199|quote=It is important to note that we ''cannot'' derive a general expression for Newton's second law for variable mass systems by treating the mass in '''F''' = ''d'''''P'''/''dt'' = ''d''(''M'''''v''') as a ''variable''. [...] We ''can'' use '''F''' = ''d'''''P'''/''dt'' to analyze variable mass systems ''only'' if we apply it to an ''entire system of constant mass'' having parts among which there is an interchange of mass.|isbn=0-471-03710-9}} [Emphasis as in the original]</ref> <math>m</math> can be brought out of the derivative operator. By substitution using the definition of [[acceleration]], the equation can be written in the iconic form
 
:<math> \mathbf{F} = m \mathbf{a}.</math>
 
The first and second laws represent a break with the physics of [[Aristotle]], in which it was believed that a force was necessary in order to maintain motion. They state that a force is only needed in order to ''change'' an object's state of motion. The SI unit of force is the [[newton (unit)|newton]], named in Newton's honour.
 
''Newton's Third Law'' states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. This means that any force exerted onto an object has a counterpart force that is exerted in the opposite direction back onto the first object. A common example is of two [[ice skater]]s pushing against each other and sliding apart in opposite directions. Another example is the [[recoil]] of a [[firearm]], in which the force propelling the [[bullet]] is exerted equally back onto the gun and is felt by the shooter. Since the objects in question do not necessarily have the same mass, the resulting acceleration of the two objects can be different (as in the case of firearm recoil).
 
Unlike Aristotle's, Newton's physics is meant to be universal. For example, the second law applies both to a planet and to a falling stone.
 
The [[Euclidean vector|vector]] nature of the second law addresses the geometrical relationship between the direction of the force and the manner in which the object's momentum changes. Before Newton, it had typically been assumed that a planet orbiting the Sun would need a forward force to keep it moving. Newton showed instead that all that was needed was an inward attraction from the Sun. Even many decades after the publication of the ''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia]]'', this counterintuitive idea was not universally accepted, and many scientists preferred [[Descartes]]' theory of vortices.<ref>Ball 1908, p. 337</ref>
 
== Apple incident ==
{{Multiple image|direction=vertical|align=right|image1=Supposedly_Isaac_Newton's_apple_tree.jpg|image2=Newton's tree, Botanic Gardens, Cambridge.JPG|image3=Newtons apple.jpg|width=150|caption3=Reputed descendants of Newton's [[apple tree]], (from top to bottom) at [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], the [[Cambridge University Botanic Garden]], and the [[Instituto Balseiro]] library garden}}
Newton himself often told the story that he was inspired to formulate his theory of gravitation by watching the fall of an apple from a tree.<ref>White 1997, p. 86</ref> Although it has been said that the apple story is a myth and that he did not arrive at his theory of gravity in any single moment,<ref name="Berkun2010"/> acquaintances of Newton (such as [[William Stukeley]], whose manuscript account of 1752 has been made available by the Royal Society)<ref name="Newton's apple: The real story"/> do in fact confirm the incident, though not the cartoon version that the apple actually hit Newton's head. Stukeley recorded in his ''Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life'' a conversation with Newton in Kensington on 15 April 1726:<ref name="Hamblyn (2011)"/>
 
{{Quotation|... We went into the garden, & drank tea under the shade of some appletrees, only he, & myself. amidst other discourse, he told me, he was just in the same situation, as when formerly, the notion of gravitation came into his mind. "why should that apple always descend perpendicularly to the ground," thought he to him self: occasion'd by the fall of an apple, as he sat in a comtemplative mood: "why should it not go sideways, or upwards? but constantly to the earths centre? assuredly, the reason is, that the earth draws it. there must be a drawing power in matter. & the sum of the drawing power in the matter of the earth must be in the earths centre, not in any side of the earth. therefore dos this apple fall perpendicularly, or toward the centre. if matter thus draws matter; it must be in proportion of its quantity. therefore the apple draws the earth, as well as the earth draws the apple."}}
 
John Conduitt, Newton's assistant at the Royal Mint and husband of Newton's niece, also described the event when he wrote about Newton's life:<ref name="Keynes Ms. 130.4:Conduitt's account of Newton's life at Cambridge"/>
 
{{Quotation|In the year 1666 he retired again from Cambridge to his mother in Lincolnshire. Whilst he was pensively meandering in a garden it came into his thought that the power of gravity (which brought an apple from a tree to the ground) was not limited to a certain distance from earth, but that this power must extend much further than was usually thought. Why not as high as the Moon said he to himself & if so, that must influence her motion & perhaps retain her in her orbit, whereupon he fell a calculating what would be the effect of that supposition.}}
 
In similar terms, [[Voltaire]] wrote in his ''Essay on Epic Poetry'' (1727), "Sir Isaac Newton walking in his gardens, had the first thought of his system of gravitation, upon seeing an apple falling from a tree."
 
It is known from his notebooks that Newton was grappling in the late 1660s with the idea that terrestrial gravity extends, in an inverse-square proportion, to the Moon; however it took him two decades to develop the full-fledged theory.<ref>I. Bernard Cohen and George E. Smith, eds. ''The Cambridge Companion to Newton'' (2002) p. 6</ref> The question was not whether gravity existed, but whether it extended so far from Earth that it could also be the force holding the Moon to its orbit. Newton showed that if the force decreased as the inverse square of the distance, one could indeed calculate the Moon's orbital period, and get good agreement. He guessed the same force was responsible for other orbital motions, and hence named it "universal gravitation".
 
Various trees are claimed to be "the" apple tree which Newton describes. The King's School, Grantham, claims that the tree was purchased by the school, uprooted and transported to the headmaster's garden some years later. The staff of the [now] [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]]-owned Woolsthorpe Manor dispute this, and claim that a tree present in their gardens is the one described by Newton. A descendant of the original tree<ref>Alberto A. Martinez ''Science Secrets: The Truth about Darwin's Finches, Einstein's Wife, and Other Myths'', page 69 (University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011). ISBN 978-0-8229-4407-2</ref> can be seen growing outside the main gate of Trinity College, Cambridge, below the room Newton lived in when he studied there. The National Fruit Collection at Brogdale<ref name="Brogdale&nbsp;— Home of the National Fruit Collection"/> can supply grafts from their tree, which appears identical to [[Flower of Kent]], a coarse-fleshed cooking variety.<ref name="From the National Fruit Collection: Isaac Newton's Tree"/>
 
== Writings ==
{{See also|Writing of Principia Mathematica}}
 
* ''[[De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas]]'' (1669, published 1711)
* ''[[Method of Fluxions]]'' (1671)
*''Of Natures Obvious Laws & Processes in Vegetation'' (unpublished, c. 1671–75)<ref>[http://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/newton/index.jsp Newton's alchemical works] transcribed and online at [[Indiana University (Bloomington)|Indiana University]]. Retrieved 11 January 2007.</ref>
* ''[[De motu corporum in gyrum]]'' (1684)
* ''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]'' (1687)
* ''[[Opticks]]'' (1704)
* ''[http://www.pierre-marteau.com/editions/1701-25-mint-reports.html Reports as Master of the Mint]'' (1701–25)
* ''[[Arithmetica Universalis]]'' (1707)
* ''The System of the World'', ''Optical Lectures'', ''[[The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms|The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms, (Amended)]]'' and ''De mundi systemate'' (published posthumously in 1728)
* ''Observations on Daniel and The Apocalypse of St. John'' (1733)
* ''[[An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture]]'' (1754)
 
== See also ==
{{Wikipedia books|Isaac Newton}}
{|
|-
| valign=top |
*[[Ismaël Bullialdus]]
*[[De Motu (Berkeley's essay)]]
* ''[[Elements of the Philosophy of Newton]]''
*[[Newton series|Finite difference: Newton_series]]
*[[Gauss–Newton algorithm]]
*[[History of calculus]]
*[[History of the telescope]]
*[[Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy]]
*[[List of multiple discoveries#17th century|List of multiple discoveries: 17th century]]
| {{in5|11}} || valign=top |
*[[Retrospective diagnoses of autism]]
*[[List of things named after Isaac Newton]]
|}
 
== References ==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em|refs=
<ref name="A Discourse on Disenchantment: Reflections on Politics and Technology">{{cite book|last=Germain |first=Gilbert G. |title=A Discourse on Disenchantment: Reflections on Politics and Technology |page=28 |isbn=0-7914-1319-5}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Berkun2010">{{cite book|author=[[Scott Berkun]]|title=The Myths of Innovation|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=kPCgnc70MSgC&pg=PA4|accessdate=7 September 2011|date=27 August 2010|publisher=O'Reilly Media, Inc.|isbn=978-1-4493-8962-8|page=4}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Brogdale&nbsp;— Home of the National Fruit Collection">{{cite web|url=http://www.brogdale.org/ |title=Brogdale&nbsp;— Home of the National Fruit Collection |publisher=Brogdale.org |accessdate=20 December 2008}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Coat of arms of Isaac Newton">{{cite web|author=Gerard Michon |url=http://www.numericana.com/arms/index.htm#newton |title=Coat of arms of Isaac Newton |publisher=Numericana.com |accessdate=16 January 2010}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Enlightenment and Religion: Rational Dissent in eighteenth-century Britain">{{cite book|last=Haakonssen |first=Knud |editor=Martin Fitzpatrick ed. |chapter=The Enlightenment, politics and providence: some Scottish and English comparisons |title=Enlightenment and Religion: Rational Dissent in eighteenth-century Britain |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |page=64 |isbn=0-521-56060-8}}</ref>
 
<ref name="From the National Fruit Collection: Isaac Newton's Tree">{{cite web|url=http://www.brogdale.org.uk/image1.php?varietyid=1089 |title=From the National Fruit Collection: Isaac Newton's Tree|accessdate=10 January 2009}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Hamblyn (2011)">{{cite book |last=Hamblyn |first=Richard |year=2011 |title=The Art of Science |publisher=[[Pan Macmillan]] |isbn=978-1-4472-0415-2 |contribution=[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1xKFSqsDj0MC&pg=PT57 Newtonian Apples: William Stukeley]}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Keynes Ms. 130.4:Conduitt's account of Newton's life at Cambridge">{{cite web|url=http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/THEM00167 |last=Conduitt|first=John |title=Keynes Ms. 130.4:Conduitt's account of Newton's life at Cambridge|work=Newtonproject|publisher=Imperial College London|accessdate=30 August 2006}}</ref>
 
<ref name="More">{{cite book|last=Westfall |first=Richard S. |origyear=1980 |year=1983 |title=Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-27435-7 |pages=530–1}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Newton's Alchemy and His Theory of Matter">{{cite journal |last=Dobbs |first=J.T. |date=December 1982 |title=Newton's Alchemy and His Theory of Matter |journal=Isis |volume=73 |issue=4 |page=523 |doi=10.1086/353114 }} quoting ''Opticks''</ref>
 
<ref name="Newton's apple: The real story">{{cite journal| publisher=New Scientist | url=http://www.newscientist.com/blogs/culturelab/2010/01/newtons-apple-the-real-story.php | title=Newton's apple: The real story | date=18 January 2010 | accessdate=10 May 2010 | postscript=<!--None-->}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Newton, Isaac (1642–1727)">{{cite web|url=http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Newton.html |title=Newton, Isaac (1642–1727) |work=Eric Weisstein's World of Biography |accessdate=30 August 2006}}</ref>
 
<ref name="OPN1">{{cite journal |last=[[F. J. Duarte|Duarte]] |year=2000 |title=Newton, prisms, and the 'opticks' of tunable lasers |journal=Optics and Photonics News |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=24–25 |doi=10.1364/OPN.11.5.000024|bibcode = 2000OptPN..11...24D |url=http://www.opticsjournal.com/F.J.DuarteOPN%282000%29.pdf |first1=F. J.}}</ref>
 
<ref name="OSNS">During Newton's lifetime, two calendars were in use in Europe: the [[Julian Calendar|Julian]] ("[[Old Style and New Style dates|Old Style]]") calendar in [[Protestantism|protestant]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] regions, including Britain; and the [[Gregorian Calendar|Gregorian]] ("[[Old Style and New Style dates|New Style]]") calendar in Roman Catholic Europe. At Newton's birth, Gregorian dates were ten days ahead of Julian dates: thus his birth is recorded as taking place on 25 December 1642 Old Style, but can be converted to a New Style (modern) date of 4 January 1643. By the time of his death, the difference between the calendars had increased to eleven days: moreover, he died in the period after the start of the New Style year on 1 January, but before that of the Old Style new year on 25 March. His death occurred on 20 March 1726 according to the Old Style calendar, but the year is usually adjusted to 1727. A full conversion to New Style gives the date 31 March 1727.</ref>
 
<ref name="Papers Show Isaac Newton's Religious Side, Predict Date of Apocalypse">{{cite news|title=Papers Show Isaac Newton's Religious Side, Predict Date of Apocalypse |agency=Associated Press |date=19 June 2007 |url=http://www.christianpost.com/article/20070619/28049_Papers_Show_Isaac_Newton%27s_Religious_Side%2C_Predict_Date_of_Apocalypse.htm |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070813033620/http://www.christianpost.com/article/20070619/28049_Papers_Show_Isaac_Newton%27s_Religious_Side,_Predict_Date_of_Apocalypse.htm |archivedate=13 August 2007|accessdate=1 August 2007}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Science and Religion in Seventeenth-Century England">{{cite book|last=Westfall |first=Richard S. |year=1958 |title=Science and Religion in Seventeenth-Century England |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven |page=200 |isbn=0-208-00843-8}}</ref>
 
<!--ref name="Singular scientists">{{cite journal|last=James|first=Ioan|date=January 2003|journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine|volume=96|issue=1|pages=36–39|pmc=539373|doi=10.1258/jrsm.96.1.36|pmid=12519805|title=Singular scientists}}</ref-->
 
<ref name="The Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes Volume X">{{cite book|last=Keynes |first=John Maynard |year=1972 |chapter=Newton, The Man |title=The Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes Volume X |publisher=MacMillan St. Martin's Press |pages=363–4}}</ref>
 
<ref name="The Early Period (1608–1672)">{{cite web|url=http://etoile.berkeley.edu/~jrg/TelescopeHistory/Early_Period.html|title=The Early Period (1608–1672)|accessdate=3 February 2009|publisher=James R. Graham's Home Page}}</ref>
 
<ref name="The Faith of Reason: The Idea of Progress in the French Enlightenment">{{cite book|last=Frankel |first=Charles |year=1948 |title=The Faith of Reason: The Idea of Progress in the French Enlightenment |publisher=King's Crown Press |location=New York |page=1}}</ref>
 
<ref name="The Newton Handbook">{{cite book|author=Gjersten, Derek |title=The Newton Handbook |year=1986 |location=London |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul}}</ref>
 
<ref name="The Newtonians and the English Revolution: 1689–1720">{{cite book|last=Jacob |first=Margaret C. |year=1976 |title=The Newtonians and the English Revolution: 1689–1720 |publisher=Cornell University Press |pages=37, 44 |isbn=0-85527-066-7}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Was Isaac Newton an Arian?">{{cite journal|last=Pfizenmaier |first=T.C. |year=1997 |title=Was Isaac Newton an Arian? |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=57–80}}</ref>
 
<ref name="White 1997, p 269">White 1997, p 269</ref>
 
<ref name="White 1997, p170">White 1997, p170</ref>
 
<ref name="bankofengland">{{cite web|url=http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/banknotes/denom_guide/nonflash/1-SeriesD-Revised.htm|title=Withdrawn banknotes reference guide|publisher=Bank of England|accessdate=27 August 2009}}</ref>
 
<ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=32IDpTdthm4C&pg=PA67&lpg=PA67&dq=newton+reflecting+telescope++1668+letter+1669&q=newton%20reflecting%20telescope%20%201668%20letter%201669 |title='&#39;'Isaac Newton: adventurer in thought'&#39;', by Alfred Rupert Hall, page 67 |publisher=Google Books |accessdate=16 January 2010|isbn=978-0-521-56669-8|author1=Hall, Alfred Rupert|year=1996}}</ref>
 
<ref name="dulles">Avery Cardinal Dulles. [http://www.firstthings.com/print.php?type=article&year=2008&month=08&title_link=the-deist-minimum--28 The Deist Minimum]. January 2005.</ref>
 
<ref name="hooke1679nov24">See 'Correspondence of Isaac Newton, vol.2, 1676–1687' ed. H W Turnbull, Cambridge University Press 1960; at page 297, document No. 235, letter from Hooke to Newton dated 24 November 1679.</ref>
 
<ref name="royalsoc.ac.uk">{{cite web|title=Newton beats Einstein in polls of Royal Society scientists and the public |work=The Royal Society |url=http://royalsociety.org/News.aspx?id=1324&terms=Newton+beats+Einstein+in+polls+of+scientists+and+the+public}}</ref>
 
<ref name="tiner">{{cite book|last=Tiner |first=J.H. |year=1975 |title=Isaac Newton: Inventor, Scientist and Teacher |publisher=Mott Media |location=Milford, Michigan, U.S. |isbn=0-915134-95-0}}</ref>
 
<ref name="westfall2">{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}{{cite book| last =Westfall | first =Richard S. | title =The Life of Isaac Newton | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year =1994 | location = Cambridge | isbn =0-521-47737-9}}</ref>
 
<ref name="wmabbey">{{cite web|url=http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people/sir-isaac-newton|title=Famous People & the Abbey: Sir Isaac Newton|publisher=Westminster Abbey|accessdate=13 November 2009}}</ref>
 
<ref name="Whittaker">[[E. T. Whittaker|Whittaker, E. T.]], ''A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity''.  Dublin University Press, 1910.</ref>
}}
 
== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|last=Ball|first=W.W. Rouse|title=A Short Account of the History of Mathematics|location=New York|publisher=Dover|year=1908|isbn=0-486-20630-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Christianson|first=Gale|title=In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & His Times|location=New York|publisher=Free Press|year=1984|isbn=0-02-905190-8}} This well documented work provides, in particular, valuable information regarding Newton's knowledge of [[Patristics]]
* {{cite journal|last=Craig |first=John |title=Isaac Newton&nbsp;– Crime Investigator |journal=Nature |year=1958 |volume=182|issue=4629 |pages=149–152 |doi=10.1038/182149a0 |bibcode = 1958Natur.182..149C }}
* {{cite journal|last=Craig |first=John |title=Isaac Newton and the Counterfeiters |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |volume=18|issue=2 |year=1963 |pages=136–145 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1963.0017 }}
* {{cite book|last=Levenson|first=Thomas|title= Newton and the Counterfeiter: The Unknown Detective Career of the World's Greatest Scientist|publisher=Mariner Books|year=2010|isbn=978-0-547-33604-6 }}
* {{cite book|last=Stewart|first=James|title= Calculus: Concepts and Contexts|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2009|isbn=978-0-495-55742-5}}
* {{cite book|authorlink=Richard S. Westfall |last=Westfall |first=Richard S. |title=Never at Rest |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1980 |isbn=0-521-27435-4|ref=harv }}
*{{cite book|last=Westfall|first=Richard S.|title=Isaac Newton|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-19-921355-9}}
*{{cite book|last=Westfall|first=Richard S.|title=The Life of Isaac Newton|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1994|isbn=0-521-47737-9}}
*{{cite book|authorlink=Michael White (author) |title=Isaac Newton: The Last Sorcerer |first=Michael |last=White |publisher=Fourth Estate Limited |year=1997 |isbn=1-85702-416-8}}
{{refend}}
 
== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}
* {{cite book|last=Andrade |first=E. N. De C. |title=Isaac Newton |publisher=Chanticleer Press |location=New York |year=1950 |isbn=0-8414-3014-4}}
*Bardi, Jason Socrates. ''The Calculus Wars: Newton, Leibniz, and the Greatest Mathematical Clash of All Time.'' 2006. 277 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/dp/1560259922 excerpt and text search]
* {{cite book| author=Bechler, Zev | title = Newton's Physics and the Conceptual Structure of the Scientific Revolution | year = 1991 | publisher=Springer | isbn = 0-7923-1054-3}}.
* Berlinski, David. ''Newton's Gift: How Sir Isaac Newton Unlocked the System of the World.'' (2000). 256 pages. [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0743217764 excerpt and text search] ISBN 0-684-84392-7
* Buchwald, Jed Z. and Cohen, I. Bernard, eds. ''Isaac Newton's Natural Philosophy.'' [[MIT Press]], 2001. 354 pages. [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0262524252 excerpt and text search]
*{{cite journal|author=Casini, P|title=Newton's Principia and the Philosophers of the Enlightenment|journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London|year=1988|volume=42|issue=1|pages=35–52|issn=0035–9149|doi=10.1098/rsnr.1988.0006|jstor=531368}}
* {{cite book| author=Christianson, Gale E | title = Isaac Newton and the Scientific Revolution | publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] | year = 1996 | isbn = 0-19-530070-X}} See [http://www.amazon.com/dp/019530070X this site] for excerpt and text search.
* {{cite book|last=Christianson |first=Gale |title=In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & His Times |location=New York |publisher=Free Press |year=1984 |isbn=0-02-905190-8 }}
* Cohen, I. Bernard and Smith, George E., ed. ''The Cambridge Companion to Newton.'' (2002). 500 pp. focuses on philosophical issues only; [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0521656966 excerpt and text search]; [http://www.questia.com/read/105054986 complete edition online]
* {{cite book|author=Cohen, I. B |title=The Newtonian Revolution |year=1980 |location= Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-22964-2}}
* {{cite book|author=Craig, John |title=Newton at the Mint |year=1946 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, England }}
* {{cite book|author=Dampier, William C |coauthors=Dampier, M. |title=Readings in the Literature of Science |publisher=Harper & Row |location=New York |year=1959 |isbn=0-486-42805-2 }}
* {{cite book|author=[[Richard de Villamil|de Villamil, Richard]] |title=Newton, the Man |publisher=G.D. Knox |location=London |year=1931}}&nbsp;– Preface by Albert Einstein. Reprinted by Johnson Reprint Corporation, New York (1972).
* {{cite book|author=Dobbs, B. J. T |title=The Foundations of Newton's Alchemy or "The Hunting of the Greene Lyon" |year=1975 |publisher=Cambridge University Press | place = Cambridge }}
* {{cite book|author=Gjertsen, Derek |title=The Newton Handbook |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |location=London |year=1986 |isbn=0-7102-0279-2 }}
*{{cite book|author=Gleick, James|title=Isaac Newton|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|year=2003 |isbn=0-375-42233-1}}
*{{cite journal|author=Halley, E |title=Review of Newton's Principia |year=1687 |journal=Philosophical Transactions |volume=186 |pages=291–297}}
*[[Stephen Hawking|Hawking, Stephen]], ed. ''On the Shoulders of Giants''. ISBN 0-7624-1348-4 Places selections from Newton's ''Principia'' in the context of selected writings by Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Einstein
*{{cite book|last=Herivel, J. W.|title=The Background to Newton's Principia. A Study of Newton's Dynamical Researches in the Years 1664–84|publisher=Clarendon Press|location=Oxford|year=1965 }}
* {{cite book|author=[[John Maynard Keynes|Keynes, John Maynard]] |title=Essays in Biography |publisher=W. W. Norton & Co |year=1963 |isbn=0-393-00189-X}} Keynes took a close interest in Newton and owned many of Newton's private papers.
* {{cite book|author=Koyré, A |title=Newtonian Studies |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1965 }}
* Newton, Isaac. ''Papers and Letters in Natural Philosophy'', edited by [[I. Bernard Cohen]]. [[Harvard University Press]], 1958,1978. ISBN 0-674-46853-8.
* Newton, Isaac (1642–1727). ''The Principia'': a new Translation, Guide by I. Bernard Cohen ISBN 0-520-08817-4 University of California (1999)
* {{cite book|author=Pemberton, H |title=A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy |publisher=S. Palmer |location=London |year=1728 }}
* {{cite book|last=Shamos, Morris H. |title=Great Experiments in Physics |location=New York |publisher=Henry Holt and Company, Inc. |year=1959 |isbn=0-486-25346-5 }}
* Shapley, Harlow, S. Rapport, and H. Wright. ''A Treasury of Science''; "Newtonia" pp.&nbsp;147–9; "Discoveries" pp.&nbsp;150–4. Harper & Bros., New York, (1946).
* {{cite book| author=Simmons, J | title = The Giant Book of Scientists – The 100 Greatest Minds of all Time | location = Sydney | publisher=The Book Company | year = 1996}}
* {{cite book|last=Stukeley |first=W. |title=Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life |publisher=Taylor and Francis | place = London |year=1936}} (edited by A. H. White; originally published in 1752)
* {{cite book|author=Westfall, R. S |title=Force in Newton's Physics: The Science of Dynamics in the Seventeenth Century |location=London |publisher=Macdonald |year=1971 |isbn=0-444-19611-0 }}
{{refend}}
 
'''Religion'''
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}
* Dobbs, Betty Jo Tetter. ''The Janus Faces of Genius: The Role of Alchemy in Newton's Thought.'' (1991), links the alchemy to Arianism
* Force, James E., and Richard H. Popkin, eds. ''Newton and Religion: Context, Nature, and Influence.'' (1999), 342pp . Pp. xvii + 325. 13 papers by scholars using newly opened manuscripts
* Ramati, Ayval. "The Hidden Truth of Creation: Newton's Method of Fluxions" ''British Journal for the History of Science'' 34: 417–438. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/4028372 in JSTOR], argues that his calculus had a theological basis
*Snobelen, Stephen "'God of Gods, and Lord of Lords': The Theology of Isaac Newton's General Scholium to the Principia," ''Osiris,'' 2nd Series, Vol. 16, (2001), pp.&nbsp;169–208 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/301985 in JSTOR]
* {{cite journal | last1 = Snobelen | first1 = Stephen D. | title = Isaac Newton, Heretic: The Strategies of a Nicodemite | jstor = 4027945 | journal=British Journal for the History of Science | volume = 32 | pages = 381–419 | doi=10.1017/S0007087499003751 | year = 1999 | issue = 4}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Pfizenmaier | first1 = Thomas C. |date=January 1997 | title = Was Isaac Newton an Arian? | jstor = 3653988 | journal=Journal of the History of Ideas | volume = 58 | issue = 1| pages = 57–80 }}
* Wiles, Maurice. ''Archetypal Heresy. Arianism through the Centuries.'' (1996) 214 pages, with chapter 4 on 18th century England; pp.&nbsp;77–93 on Newton, [http://books.google.com/books?id=DGksMzk37hMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Arianism+through+the+Centuries%22 excerpt and text search].
{{refend}}
 
'''Primary sources'''
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}
* Newton, Isaac. ''The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.'' [[University of California Press]], (1999). 974 pp.
** Brackenridge, J. Bruce. ''The Key to Newton's Dynamics: The Kepler Problem and the Principia: Containing an English Translation of Sections 1, 2, and 3 of Book One from the First (1687) Edition of Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.'' University of California Press, 1996. 299 pp.
* Newton, Isaac. ''The Optical Papers of Isaac Newton. Vol. 1: The Optical Lectures, 1670–1672.'' Cambridge U. Press, 1984. 627 pp.
** Newton, Isaac. ''Opticks'' (4th ed. 1730) [http://books.google.com/books?id=GnAFAAAAQAAJ&dq=newton+opticks&pg=PP1&ots=Nnl345oqo_&sig=0mBTaXUI_K6w-JDEu_RvVq5TNqc&prev=http://www.google.com/search%3Fq%3Dnewton%2Bopticks%26rls%3Dcom.microsoft:en-us:IE-SearchBox%26ie%3DUTF-8%26oe%3DUTF-8%26sourceid%3Die7%26rlz%3D1I7GGLJ&sa=X&oi=print&ct=title&cad=one-book-with-thumbnail online edition]
** Newton, I. (1952). Opticks, or A Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections & Colours of Light. New York: Dover Publications.
* Newton, I. ''Sir Isaac Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy and His System of the World,'' tr. A. Motte, rev. [[Florian Cajori]]. Berkeley: University of California Press. (1934).
* {{cite book|author=[[Whiteside, D. T.|Whiteside, D. T]] |title=The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1967–82 |isbn=0-521-07740-0}}&nbsp;– 8 volumes.
*Newton, Isaac. ''The correspondence of Isaac Newton,'' ed. H. W. Turnbull and others, 7 vols. (1959–77).
* ''Newton's Philosophy of Nature: Selections from His Writings'' edited by H. S. Thayer, (1953), [http://www.questia.com/read/5876270 online edition].
* Isaac Newton, Sir; J Edleston; [[Roger Cotes]], [http://books.google.com/books?as_brr=1&id=OVPJ6c9_kKgC&vid=OCLC14437781&dq=%22isaac+newton%22&jtp=I ''Correspondence of Sir Isaac Newton and Professor Cotes, including letters of other eminent men''], London, John W. Parker, West Strand; Cambridge, John Deighton, 1850 (Google Books).
* Maclaurin, C. (1748). An Account of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophical Discoveries, in Four Books. London: A. Millar and J. Nourse.
* Newton, I. (1958). Isaac Newton's Papers and Letters on Natural Philosophy and Related Documents, eds. I. B. Cohen and R. E. Schofield. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
* Newton, I. (1962). The Unpublished Scientific Papers of Isaac Newton: A Selection from the Portsmouth Collection in the University Library, Cambridge, ed. A. R. Hall and M. B. Hall. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
*Newton, I. (1975). Isaac Newton's 'Theory of the Moon's Motion' (1702). London: Dawson.
{{refend}}
 
== External links ==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Isaac_Newton.ogg|2008-07-30}}
{{Sister project links|s=Author:Isaac Newton|wikt=no|n=no|b=Introduction to Astrophysics/Historical Context/Isaac Newton}}
*{{librivox author|Isaac+Newton}}
*[http://scholar.google.com.au/citations?user=xJaxiEEAAAAJ&hl=en Newton's Scholar Google profile]
*[http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Newton.html ScienceWorld biography] by [[Eric Weisstein]]
*[http://www.chlt.org/sandbox/lhl/dsb/page.50.a.php Dictionary of Scientific Biography]
*[http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/prism.php?id=1 "The Newton Project"]
*[http://www.isaacnewton.ca/ "The Newton Project – Canada"]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20080629021908/http://www.skepticreport.com/predictions/newton.htm "Rebuttal of Newton's astrology"] (via [[archive.org]])
*[http://www.galilean-library.org/snobelen.html "Newton's Religious Views Reconsidered"]
*[http://www.pierre-marteau.com/editions/1701-25-mint-reports.html "Newton's Royal Mint Reports"]
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/newton/ "Newton's Dark Secrets"] - [[Nova (TV series)|NOVA]] TV programme
*from ''The [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]:''
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/newton/ "Isaac Newton"], by George Smith
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/newton-principia/ "Newton's ''Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica''"], by George Smith
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/newton-philosophy/ "Newton's Philosophy"], by Andrew Janiak
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/newton-stm/ "Newton's views on space, time, and motion"], by Robert Rynasiewicz
*[http://www.tqnyc.org/NYC051308/index.htm "Newton's Castle"] - educational material
*[http://www.dlib.indiana.edu/collections/newton "The Chymistry of Isaac Newton"], research on his alchemical writings
*[http://www.fmalive.com/ "FMA Live!"] - program for teaching Newton's laws to kids
*[http://www.adherents.com/people/pn/Isaac_Newton.html Newton's religious position]
*[http://hss.fullerton.edu/philosophy/GeneralScholium.htm The "General Scholium" to Newton's ''Principia'']
*Kandaswamy, Anand M. [http://www.math.rutgers.edu/courses/436/Honors02/newton.html "''The Newton/Leibniz Conflict in Context''"]
*[http://www.phaser.com/modules/historic/newton/index.html Newton's First ODE]&nbsp;– A study by on how Newton approximated the solutions of a first-order ODE using infinite series
*{{MacTutor Biography|id=Newton}}
*{{MathGenealogy|id=74313}}
*[http://www.ltrc.mcmaster.ca/newton/ "The Mind of Isaac Newton"] - images, audio, animations and interactive segments
*[http://www.enlighteningscience.sussex.ac.uk/home Enlightening Science] Videos on Newton's biography, optics, physics, reception, and on his views on science and religion
*[http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Newton.html Newton biography (University of St Andrews)]
*<!--{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Newton, Sir Isaac}}--> Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "[[s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Newton, Sir Isaac|Newton, Sir Isaac]]". ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
*and see at [[s:Author:Isaac Newton]] for the following works about him:
**"Newton, Sir Isaac" in A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature by John William Cousin, London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1910.
**"Newton, Isaac," in Dictionary of National Biography, London: Smith, Elder, & Co., (1885–1900)
**Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's life by William Stukeley, 1752
* {{NRA | id=P21155}}
* {{npg name|id=03286|name=Sir Isaac Newton}}
 
'''Writings by Newton'''
*[http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/prism.php?id=43 Newton's works – full texts, at the Newton Project]
* [http://web.nli.org.il/sites/NLI/English/collections/Humanities/Pages/newton.aspx The Newton Manuscripts at the National Library of Israel - the collection of all his religious writings]
*{{gutenberg author|id=Isaac_Newton|name=Isaac Newton}}
*[http://rack1.ul.cs.cmu.edu/is/newton/ "Newton's ''Principia''"] – read and search
*[http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/ ''Descartes, Space, and Body'' and ''A New Theory of Light and Colour''], modernised readable versions by Jonathan Bennett
*[http://www.archive.org/stream/opticksoratreat00newtgoog#page/n6/mode/2up ''Opticks, or a Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of Light''], full text on [[archive.org]]
*[http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/collections/newton "Newton Papers"] - Cambridge Digital Library
*See Wikisource at [[s:Author:Isaac Newton]] for the following works by him:
** ''Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica''
** ''Opticks: or, a Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections and Colours of Light''
** ''Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John''
** ''New Theory About Light and Colour''
** ''An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture''
 
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|DATE OF DEATH=31 March 1727 Gregorian calendar
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