|
|
| (One intermediate revision by one other user not shown) |
| Line 1: |
Line 1: |
| In engineering, applied math, and physics, the '''Buckingham π theorem''' is a key [[theorem]] in [[dimensional analysis]]. It is a formalization of [[Rayleigh's method of dimensional analysis]]. Loosely, the theorem states that if there is a physically meaningful equation involving a certain number, ''n'', of physical variables, and ''k'' is the rank of the dimensional matrix, then the original expression is equivalent to an equation involving a set of ''p'' = ''n'' − ''k'' dimensionless parameters constructed from the original variables: it is a scheme for [[nondimensionalization]]. This provides a method for computing sets of dimensionless parameters from the given variables, even if the form of the equation is still unknown. However, the choice of dimensionless parameters is not unique: Buckingham's theorem only provides a way of generating sets of dimensionless parameters, and will not choose the most 'physically meaningful'.
| | Building and Engineering Specialists Homer Gullion from New Westminster, has pastimes including interior design, health and fitness and urban exploration. Has just completed a trip to Chongoni Rock-Art Area.<br><br>Here is my page [http://www.butternjam.com/questions/exercise-with-these-helpful-tips/ www.butternjam.com] |
| | |
| == Historical information ==
| |
| | |
| The pi–theorem was first proved by French mathematician [[Joseph Louis François Bertrand|J. Bertrand]]<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bertrand|first=J.|year=1878|title=Sur l'homogénété dans les formules de physique|url=http://gidropraktikum.narod.ru/Bertrand-1878.djvu|journal=Comptes rendus|volume=86|number=15|pages=916–920}}</ref> in 1878. Bertrand considers only special cases of problems from electrodynamics and heat conduction, but his article contains in distinct terms all basic ideas of modern proof of the pi–theorem and clear indication of the use of the pi–theorem for modelling physical phenomena. The technique of pi–theorem’s usage (“the method of dimensions”) became widely known due to the works of [[John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh|Rayleigh]] (the first application of the pi–theorem ''in the general case''<ref>When in applying the pi–theorem there arises an ''arbitrary function'' of dimensionless numbers.</ref> to the dependence of pressure drop in a pipe upon governing parameters probably dates back to 1892,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rayleigh|year=1892|title=On the question of the stability of the flow of liquids|url=http://gidropraktikum.narod.ru/Rayleigh-1892.djvu|journal=Philosophical magazine|volume=34|pages=59–70}}</ref> a heuristic proof with the use of series expansion, to 1894<ref>Second edition of ``The Theory of Sound’’({{cite book|last=Strutt|first=John William|year=1896|title=The Theory of Sound|url=http://archive.org/details/theorysound05raylgoog|publisher=Macmillan|volume=2}}).</ref>).
| |
| | |
| Formal generalization of the pi–theorem for the case of ''arbitrary number'' of quantities was for the first time given by A. Vaschy in 1892,<ref>Quotes from Vaschy’s article with his statement of the pi–theorem can be found in: {{cite journal|last=Macagno|first=E. O.|year=1971|title=Historico-critical review of dimensional analysis| url=http://gidropraktikum.narod.ru/Macagno-1971.djvu|journal=Journal of the Franklin Institute|issue=6|volume=292|pages=391–402}}</ref> and later and, apparently, independently, by A. Federman,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Федерман|first=А.|year=1911|title=О некоторых общих методах интегрирования уравнений с частными производными первого порядка|url=http://gidropraktikum.narod.ru/Federman.djvu|journal=Известия Санкт-Петербургского политехнического института императора Петра Великого. Отдел техники, естествознания и математики|issue=1|volume=16|pages=97–155}} (Federman A., On some general methods of integration of first-order partial differential equations, Proceedings of the Saint-Petersburg polytechnic institute. Section of technics, natural science, and mathematics)</ref> [[Dimitri Riabouchinsky|D. Riabouchinsky]]<ref>{{cite journal|last=Riabouchinsky|first=D.|year=1911|title=Мéthode des variables de dimension zéro et son application en aérodynamique|journal=L’Aérophile|pages=407–408}}</ref> in 1911 and by E. Buckingham<ref>[http://gidropraktikum.narod.ru/Buckingham.djvu Original text of Buckingham’s article in ''Physical Review'']</ref> in 1914.
| |
| | |
| == Statement ==
| |
| More formally, the number of dimensionless terms that can be formed, ''p'', is equal to the [[Null space#Relation to the row space|nullity]] of the [[Buckingham π theorem#Formal proof|dimensional matrix]], and ''k'' is the [[Rank (linear algebra)|rank]]. For the purposes of the experimenter, different systems which share the same description in terms of these [[dimensionless number]]s are equivalent.
| |
| | |
| In mathematical terms, if we have a physically meaningful equation such as
| |
| | |
| :<math>f(q_1,q_2,\ldots,q_n)=0\, </math>
| |
| | |
| where the ''q<sub>i</sub>'' are the ''n'' physical variables, and they are expressed in terms of ''k'' independent physical units, then the above equation can be restated as
| |
| | |
| :<math>F(\pi_1,\pi_2,\ldots,\pi_p)=0\, </math>
| |
| | |
| where the π<sub>i</sub> are dimensionless parameters constructed from the ''q<sub>i</sub>'' by ''p'' = ''n'' − ''k'' dimensionless equations —the so-called ''Pi groups''— of the form
| |
| | |
| :<math>\pi_i=q_1^{a_1}\,q_2^{a_2}\cdots q_n^{a_n} \, </math>
| |
| | |
| where the exponents ''a<sub>i</sub>'' are rational numbers (they can always be taken to be integers: just raise it to a power to clear denominators).
| |
| | |
| The use of the π<sub>''i''</sub> as the dimensionless parameters was introduced by [[Edgar Buckingham]] in his original 1914 paper on the subject from which the theorem draws its name.
| |
| | |
| == Significance ==
| |
| The Buckingham π theorem provides a method for computing sets of dimensionless parameters from the given variables, even if the form of the equation is still unknown. However, the choice of dimensionless parameters is not unique: Buckingham's theorem only provides a way of generating sets of dimensionless parameters, and will not choose the most 'physically meaningful'.
| |
| | |
| Two systems for which these parameters coincide are called ''similar'' (as with [[similar triangles]], they differ only in scale); they are equivalent for the purposes of the equation, and the experimentalist who want to determine the form of the equation can choose the most convenient one.
| |
| §To find out relation between the number of variables and fundamental dimensions Buckinghams theorem is most important.§
| |
| | |
| == Proof ==
| |
| | |
| === Outline ===
| |
| It will be assumed that the space of fundamental and derived physical units forms a [[vector space]] over the [[rational number]]s, with the fundamental units as basis vectors, and with multiplication of physical units as the "vector addition" operation, and raising to powers as the "scalar multiplication" operation:
| |
| represent a dimensional variable as the set of exponents needed for the fundamental units (with a power of zero if the particular fundamental unit is not present). For instance, the gravitational constant ''g'' has units of <math>\ell/t^2=\ell^1t^{-2}</math> (distance over time squared), so it is represented as the vector <math>(1,-2)</math> with respect to the basis of fundamental units (distance,time).
| |
| | |
| Making the physical units match across sets of physical equations can then be regarded as imposing linear constraints in the physical unit vector space.
| |
| | |
| === Formal proof ===
| |
| Given a system of ''n'' dimensional variables (physical variables), in ''k'' (physical) dimensions, write the ''dimensional matrix'' ''M'', whose rows are the dimensions and whose columns are the variables: the (''i'', ''j'')th entry is the power of the ''i''th unit in the ''j''th variable. The matrix can be interpreted as taking in a combination of the dimensional quantities and giving out the dimensions of this product. So
| |
| :<math>M\begin{bmatrix}a_1\\ \vdots \\ a_n\end{bmatrix}</math>
| |
| is the units of
| |
| :<math>q_1^{a_1}\,q_2^{a_2}\cdots q_n^{a_n}. \,</math>
| |
| | |
| A dimensionless variable is a combination whose units are all zero (hence, dimensionless), which is equivalent to the [[Kernel (linear algebra)|kernel]] of this matrix; a dimensionless variable is a [[linear relation]] between units of dimensional variables.
| |
| | |
| By the [[rank-nullity theorem]], a system of ''n'' vectors in ''k'' dimensions (where all dimensions are necessary) satisfies a (''p'' = ''n'' − ''k'')-dimensional space of relations. Any choice of [[Basis (linear algebra)|basis]] will have ''p'' elements, which are the dimensionless variables.
| |
| | |
| The dimensionless variables can always be taken to be integer combinations of the dimensional variables (by clearing denominators). There is mathematically no natural choice of dimensionless variables; some choices of dimensionless variables are more physically meaningful, and these are what are ideally used.
| |
| | |
| == Examples ==
| |
| | |
| === Speed ===
| |
| This example is elementary, but demonstrates the general procedure: Suppose a car is driving at 100 km/hour; how long does it take it to go 200 km?
| |
| | |
| This question has two fundamental physical units: time ''t'' and length <math>\ell</math>, and three dimensional variables: distance ''D'', time taken ''T'', and velocity ''V''. Thus there is 3 − 2 = 1 dimensionless quantity. The units of the dimensional quantities are:
| |
| | |
| :<math>D \sim \ell,\ T \sim t,\ V \sim \ell/t.</math>
| |
| | |
| The dimensional matrix is:
| |
| | |
| :<math>M=\begin{bmatrix}
| |
| 1 & 0 & 1\\
| |
| 0 & 1 & -1
| |
| \end{bmatrix}</math>
| |
| | |
| The rows correspond to the dimensions <math>\ell</math>, and ''t'', and the columns to the dimensional variables ''D'', ''T'', ''V''. For instance, the 3rd column, (1, −1), states that the ''V'' (velocity) variable has units of <math> \ell^1 t^{-1} = \ell/t </math>.
| |
| | |
| For a dimensionless constant <math>\pi=D^{a_1}T^{a_2}V^{a_3}</math> we are looking for a vector <math>a=[a_1,a_2,a_3]</math> such that the matrix product of ''M'' on ''a'' yields the zero vector [0,0]. In linear algebra, this vector is known as the [[Kernel (linear algebra)|kernel]] of the dimensional matrix, and it spans the [[nullspace]] of the dimensional matrix, which in this particular case is one dimensional. The dimensional matrix as written above is in [[reduced row echelon form]], so one can read off that a kernel vector may be written (to within a multiplicative constant) by:
| |
| | |
| :<math>a=\begin{bmatrix}-1\\ 1 \\ 1\end{bmatrix}.</math>
| |
| | |
| If the dimensional matrix were not already reduced, one could perform [[Gauss–Jordan elimination]] on the dimensional matrix in order to more easily determine the kernel. It follows that the dimensionless constant may be written:
| |
| | |
| :<math>\begin{align}\pi &= D^{-1}T^1V^1\\
| |
| &= TV/D\end{align}</math>
| |
| | |
| or, in dimensional terms:
| |
| | |
| :<math>\pi \sim (\ell)^{-1}(t)^1(\ell/t)^1 \sim 1</math>
| |
| | |
| Since the kernel is only defined to within a multiplicative constant, if the above dimensionless constant is raised to any arbitrary power, it will yield another equivalent dimensionless constant.
| |
| | |
| Dimensional analysis has thus provided a general equation relating the three physical variables:
| |
| | |
| :<math>f(\pi)=0 \, </math>
| |
| | |
| which may be written:
| |
| | |
| :<math>T=\frac{C D}{V}</math>
| |
| | |
| where ''C'' is one of a set of constants, such that <math>C=f^{-1}(0)</math>. The actual relationship between the three variables is simply <math>D=VT</math> so that the actual dimensionless equation (<math>f(\pi)=0</math>) is written:
| |
| | |
| :<math>f(\pi)=\pi-1 = VT/D - 1 = 0 \, </math>
| |
| | |
| In other words, there is only one value of ''C'' and it is unity. The fact that there is only a single value of ''C'' and that it is equal to unity is a level of detail not provided by the technique of dimensional analysis.
| |
| | |
| [[File:Pendel PT.svg|thumb]]
| |
| | |
| ===The simple pendulum===
| |
| We wish to determine the period ''T'' of small oscillations in a simple pendulum. It will be assumed that it is a function of the length ''L'' , the mass ''M'' , and the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the Earth ''g'', which has units of length divided by time squared. The model is of the form
| |
| | |
| :<math>f(T,M,L,g) = 0.\,</math>
| |
| | |
| (Note that it is written as a relation, not as a function: ''T'' isn't written here as a function of ''M'', ''L'', and ''g''.)
| |
| | |
| There are 3 fundamental physical units in this equation: time ''t'', mass ''m'', and length ''l'', and 4 dimensional variables, ''T'', ''M'', ''L'', and ''g''. Thus we need only 4 − 3 = 1 dimensionless parameter, denoted π, and the model can be re-expressed as
| |
| | |
| :<math>f(\pi) = 0 \, </math>
| |
| | |
| where π is given by
| |
| | |
| :<math>\pi =T^{a_1}M^{a_2}L^{a_3}g^{a_4} \, </math>
| |
| | |
| for some values of ''a''<sub>1</sub>, ..., ''a''<sub>4</sub>.
| |
| | |
| The units of the dimensional quantities are:
| |
| | |
| :<math>T = t, M = m, L = \ell, g = \ell/t^2. \, </math>
| |
| | |
| The dimensional matrix is:
| |
| | |
| :<math>M=\begin{bmatrix}
| |
| 1 & 0 & 0 & -2\\
| |
| 0 & 1 & 0 & 0\\
| |
| 0 & 0 & 1 & 1
| |
| \end{bmatrix}</math>
| |
| | |
| (The rows correspond to the dimensions ''t'', ''m'', and ''l'', and the columns to the dimensional variables ''T'', ''M'', ''L'' and ''g''. For instance, the 4th column, (−2, 0, 1), states that the ''g'' variable has units of <math>t^{-2}m^0 \ell^1</math>.)
| |
| | |
| We are looking for a kernel vector ''a'' = [''a''<sub>1</sub>, ''a''<sub>2</sub>, ''a''<sub>3</sub>, ''a''<sub>4</sub>] such that the matrix product of ''M'' on ''a'' yields the zero vector [0,0,0]. The dimensional matrix as written above is in reduced row echelon form, so one can read off that a kernel vector may be written (to within a multiplicative constant) by:
| |
| | |
| :<math>a=\begin{bmatrix}2\\ 0 \\ -1 \\ 1\end{bmatrix}.</math>
| |
| | |
| Were it not already reduced, one could perform [[Gauss–Jordan elimination]] on the dimensional matrix in order to more easily determine the kernel. It follows that the dimensionless constant may be written:
| |
| | |
| :<math>\begin{align}\pi &= T^2M^0L^{-1}g^1\\
| |
| &= gT^2/L\end{align}</math>
| |
| In fundamental terms:
| |
| | |
| :<math>\pi=(t)^2(m)^0(\ell)^{-1}(\ell/t^2)^1 = 1 \, </math>
| |
| | |
| which is dimensionless. Since the kernel is only defined to within a multiplicative constant, if the above dimensionless constant is raised to any arbitrary power, it will yield another equivalent dimensionless constant.
| |
| | |
| This example is easy because three of the dimensional quantities are fundamental units, so the last (''g'') is a combination of the previous. Note that if ''a''<sub>2</sub> were non-zero there would be no way to cancel the ''M'' value—therefore ''a''<sub>2</sub> ''must'' be zero. Dimensional analysis has allowed us to conclude that the period of the pendulum is not a function of its mass. (In the 3D space of powers of mass, time, and distance, we can say that the vector for mass is linearly independent from the vectors for the three other variables. Up to a scaling factor, <math>\vec g - 2 \vec T - \vec L</math> is the only nontrivial way to construct a vector of a dimensionless parameter.)
| |
| | |
| The model can now be expressed as:
| |
| | |
| :<math>f(gT^2/L) = 0.\ </math>
| |
| | |
| Assuming the zeroes of ''f'' are discrete, we can say ''gT''<sup>2</sup>/''L'' = ''C''<sub>''n''</sub> where ''C<sub>n</sub>'' is the ''n''th zero. If there is only one zero, then ''gT''<sup>2</sup>/''L'' = ''C'' . It requires more physical insight or an experiment to show that there is indeed only one zero and that the constant is in fact given by ''C'' = 4π<sup>2</sup>.
| |
| | |
| For large oscillations of a pendulum, the analysis is complicated by an additional dimensionless parameter, the maximum swing angle. The above analysis is a good approximation as the [[small angle approximation|angle approaches zero]].
| |
| | |
| ==See also==
| |
| * [[Blast wave]]
| |
| * [[Dimensional analysis]]
| |
| * [[Dimensionless number]]
| |
| * [[Natural units]]
| |
| * [[Nondimensionalization]]
| |
| * [[Similitude (model)]]
| |
| * [[Rayleigh's method of dimensional analysis]]
| |
| | |
| == References ==
| |
| | |
| === Notes ===
| |
| <references/>
| |
| | |
| === Exposition ===
| |
| * {{cite web
| |
| | author=Hanche-Olsen, Harald | year=2004
| |
| | url=http://www.math.ntnu.no/~hanche/notes/buckingham/buckingham-a4.pdf
| |
| | title=Buckingham's pi-theorem | format=PDF
| |
| | publisher=NTNU | accessdate=April 9, 2007
| |
| }}
| |
| *{{cite book
| |
| | last = Hart
| |
| | first = George W.
| |
| | date = March 1, 1995
| |
| | title = Multidimensional Analysis: Algebras and Systems for Science and Engineering
| |
| | publisher = Springer-Verlag
| |
| | isbn = 0-387-94417-6
| |
| | url = http://www.georgehart.com/research/multanal.html
| |
| }}
| |
| *{{cite book
| |
| | last = Kline
| |
| | first = Stephen J.
| |
| | year = 1986
| |
| | title = Similitude and Approximation Theory
| |
| | publisher = Springer-Verlag, New York
| |
| | isbn = 0-387-16518-5
| |
| }}
| |
| *{{cite book
| |
| | last = Wan
| |
| | first = Frederic Y.M.
| |
| | year = 1989
| |
| | title = Mathematical Models and their Analysis
| |
| | publisher = Harper & Row Publishers, New York
| |
| | isbn = 0-06-046902-1
| |
| }}
| |
| *{{cite web
| |
| | author=Vignaux, G.A. | year=1991
| |
| | url=http://www.mcs.vuw.ac.nz/~vignaux/docs/maxent.pdf
| |
| | title=Dimensional analysis in data modelling | format=PDF
| |
| | publisher= Victoria University of Wellington | accessdate=December 15, 2005
| |
| }}
| |
| * Mike Sheppard, 2007 [http://www.msu.edu/~sheppa28/constants/constants.html Systematic Search for Expressions of Dimensionless Constants using the NIST database of Physical Constants]
| |
| *{{cite book
| |
| | last = Gibbings
| |
| | first = J.C.
| |
| | year = 2011
| |
| | title = Dimensional Analysis
| |
| | publisher = Springer
| |
| | isbn = 1-84996-316-9
| |
| }}
| |
| | |
| === Original sources ===
| |
| *{{cite journal
| |
| | last=Vaschy | first=A.
| |
| | year=1892
| |
| | title=Sur les lois de similitude en physique
| |
| | journal=[[Annales Télégraphiques]]
| |
| | volume= 19 | pages=25–28
| |
| }}
| |
| * {{cite journal
| |
| | last=Buckingham | first=E.
| |
| | authorlink=Edgar Buckingham
| |
| | year=1914
| |
| | title=On physically similar systems; illustrations of the use of dimensional equations
| |
| | journal=[[Physical Review]]
| |
| | volume=4 | issue=4 | pages=345–376
| |
| | doi=10.1103/PhysRev.4.345
| |
| |bibcode = 1914PhRv....4..345B }}
| |
| *{{cite journal
| |
| |last=Buckingham |first=E.
| |
| |authorlink=Edgar Buckingham
| |
| |year=1915
| |
| |title=The principle of similitude
| |
| |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]
| |
| |volume=96 |pages=396–397
| |
| |doi=10.1038/096396d0
| |
| |bibcode = 1915Natur..96..396B
| |
| |issue=2406}}
| |
| *{{cite journal
| |
| |last=Buckingham |first=E.
| |
| |authorlink=Edgar Buckingham
| |
| |year=1915
| |
| |title=Model experiments and the forms of empirical equations
| |
| |journal=[[Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers]]
| |
| |volume=37 |pages=263–296
| |
| }}
| |
| *{{cite journal
| |
| | first = Sir G. | last = Taylor
| |
| | authorlink = Geoffrey Ingram Taylor
| |
| | year = 1950
| |
| | title = The Formation of a Blast Wave by a Very Intense Explosion. I. Theoretical Discussion
| |
| | journal = [[Proceedings of the Royal Society A]]
| |
| | volume = 201 | pages = 159–174
| |
| | doi = 10.1098/rspa.1950.0049
| |
| |bibcode = 1950RSPSA.201..159T
| |
| | issue = 1065 }}
| |
| *{{cite journal
| |
| | first = Sir G. | last = Taylor
| |
| | authorlink = Geoffrey Ingram Taylor
| |
| | year = 1950
| |
| | title = The Formation of a Blast Wave by a Very Intense Explosion. II. The Atomic Explosion of 1945
| |
| | journal = [[Proceedings of the Royal Society A]]
| |
| | volume = 201 | pages = 175–186
| |
| | url=http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/201/1065/175
| |
| | doi = 10.1098/rspa.1950.0050
| |
| |bibcode = 1950RSPSA.201..175T
| |
| | issue = 1065 }}
| |
| | |
| ==External links==
| |
| * [http://www.gidropraktikum.narod.ru/pi-theorem-history.htm/ Some reviews and original sources on the history of pi theorem and the theory of similarity (in Russian)]
| |
| | |
| {{DEFAULTSORT:Buckingham Pi Theorem}}
| |
| [[Category:Dimensional analysis]]
| |
| [[Category:Physics theorems]]
| |
| [[Category:Articles containing proofs]]
| |