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| {{Redirect|List of Indo-European roots|a list of common Indo-European roots and cognates|wikt:Appendix:List of Proto-Indo-European roots}}
| | Royal Votaw is my title but I by no means truly liked that title. Bottle tops collecting is the only hobby his wife doesn't approve of. Bookkeeping is what she does. Her husband and her selected to reside in Delaware but she requirements to move because of her family members.<br><br>Here is my web blog extended car warranty ([http://Www.Caribbeansocialnetwork.com/groups/easy-diy-repair-strategies-for-your-automobile/ see this]) |
| {{PIE notice}}
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| The '''[[root (linguistics)|roots]]''' of the reconstructed '''[[Proto-Indo-European language]]''' (PIE) are basic parts of [[word]]s that carry a [[lexical (semiotics)|lexical]] meaning, so-called [[morpheme]]s. PIE roots usually have [[verb]]al meaning like "eat" or "run". Roots never occur alone in the language. Complete [[inflected]] words like verbs, nouns or adjectives are formed by adding further morphemes to a root. Typically, a root plus a [[suffix]] forms a [[Stem (linguistics)|stem]], and adding an [[Ending (linguistics)|ending]] forms a word.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|pp=76}}</ref> Suffix and ending together are sometimes called the ''desinence'' (German: ''Ausgang''), especially when they are fused.<!-- should be mentioned in Hadumod Bußmann's ''Lexikon der Sprachwissenschaft'', for example, or some of the introductions to Indo-European or general linguistics, or morphology -->
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| <math>
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| \underbrace{\underbrace{\mathrm{root+suffix}}_{\mathrm{stem}} + \mathrm{ending}}_{\mathrm{word}}
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| </math>
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| For example, {{PIE|*''bʰéreti''}}<ref>The [[asterisk]] * indicates that this form is not directly attested, but has been reconstructed on the basis of other linguistic material.</ref> "he carries" can be split into the root {{PIE|*''bʰer-''}} "to carry", the suffix {{PIE|*''-e-''}} "[[present tense]]" and the ending {{PIE|*''-ti''}} "third [[Grammatical person|person]] [[Grammatical number|singular]]".<ref>All examples of PIE roots are taken from {{Harvcoltxt|Rix|2001}} and {{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004}}.</ref>
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| In its base form, a PIE root consists of a single [[vowel]], preceded and followed by [[consonant]]s. Except for a very few cases, the root is fully characterized by its consonants, while the vowel may alternate, a process called [[Indo-European ablaut|ablaut]]. Thus, the mentioned root {{PIE|*''bʰer-''}} can also appear as {{PIE|*''bʰor-''}}, with a long vowel as {{PIE|*''bʰēr-''}} or {{PIE|*''bʰōr-''}}, or even unsyllabic as {{PIE|*''bʰr-''}}, in different grammatical contexts.
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| == Phonotactics ==
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| [[Phonotactics]] describes the restrictions on the permissible combinations of [[phoneme]]s (sounds).
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| === Basic root structure ===
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| The centre of a PIE root is the ablauting vowel (usually {{PIE|*''e''}}, perhaps sometimes {{PIE|*''a''}}<ref>The existence of {{PIE|*''a''}} as an ablauting vowel is disputed (see [[Indo-European ablaut#a-grade|Indo-European ablaut: a-grade]]).</ref> in its base form, the ''full grade''). This vowel constitutes a [[Sonority hierarchy|sonority]] peak that is preceded and followed by a sequence of consonants with progressively decreasing sonority values. In other words, the sonority has to fall toward both edges of the root. The sonority hierarchy is as follows:<ref name="LIV">{{Harvcoltxt|Rix|2001|p=5}}</ref>
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| # non-[[labial consonant|labial]] sonorants {{PIE|*''l'' *''r'' *''y'' *''n''}}
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| # labial sonorants {{PIE|*''w'' *''m''}}
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| # [[plosive]]s (sounds like {{PIE|*''p'' *''t'' *''ḱ'' *''k'' *''kʷ''}} or {{PIE|*''bʰ''}}; see [[Proto-Indo-European phonology#Consonants|Proto-Indo-European phonology]] for a complete table of PIE plosives)
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| This gives the following root structure (with ''P'' being any plosive and <math>\oslash</math> an empty position):
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| <math>
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| ^*
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| \begin{Bmatrix} P \\ \oslash \end{Bmatrix}
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| \begin{Bmatrix} w \\ m \\ \oslash \end{Bmatrix}
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| \begin{Bmatrix} l \\ r \\ y \\ n \\ \oslash \end{Bmatrix}
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| e
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| \begin{Bmatrix} l \\ r \\ y \\ n \\ \oslash \end{Bmatrix}
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| \begin{Bmatrix} w \\ m \\ \oslash \end{Bmatrix}
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| \begin{Bmatrix} P \\ \oslash \end{Bmatrix}-
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| </math>
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| {{PIE|*''w''}} after a vowel is often written {{PIE|*''u''}}, and {{PIE|*''y''}} after a vowel is often written {{PIE|*''i''}}. Thus, {{PIE|*''leiǵ-'' {{=}} *''leyǵ-''}} "to bind" and {{PIE|*''dʰeu-'' {{=}} *''dʰew-''}} "to run" are allowed roots.
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| Other possible roots include {{PIE|*''ped-''}} "to tread", {{PIE|*''dʰwes-''}} "to breathe" and {{PIE|*''wleikʷ-''}} "to moisten". Forbidden are structures like {{PIE|**''mter-''}} (wrong order of phonemes: internal plosive) and {{PIE|**''wmek-''}} (two phonemes of the same group: unchanging sonority).
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| === Additional phonemes ===
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| The remaining sounds, namely the [[laryngeals]] {{PIE|*''h₁'' *''h₂'' *''h₃''}} and the sibilant {{PIE|*''s''}}, can occupy almost any place in the hierarchy.<ref name="LIV" /> {{PIE|*''s''}} is particularly common in initial position (see [[s-mobile]]).<ref name="Fortson 2004">{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|pp=70–73}}</ref> Examples of such roots are {{PIE|*''peth₂-''}} "to fly", {{PIE|*''treh₁w-''}} "to nourish" and {{PIE|*''streig-''}} "to stroke".
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| Following the terminology of [[Sanskrit grammar]], roots ending in laryngeals are referred to as [[Seṭ and aniṭ roots|seṭ-]], all others as aniṭ-roots.
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| === Restrictions on the plosives ===
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| A root cannot contain two plain voiced plosives ({{PIE|**''ged-''}}), nor can it contain a voiced aspirate and a voiceless plosive ({{PIE|**''tebʰ-''}}), unless the latter occurs in a word-initial cluster after an {{PIE|*''s''}} (e.g. {{PIE|*''stebʰ-''}} "to stiffen").<ref name="Fortson 2004" />
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| === Restrictions on the number of phonemes ===
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| The vowel has to be preceded and followed by at least one consonant each. The maximum number of consonants seems to be five (as in {{PIE|*''strengʰ-''}} "to twine").<ref name="Fortson 2004" />
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| Early PIE scholars reconstructed a number of roots beginning or ending with a vowel.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Pokorny|1959}}</ref> The latter type always had a long vowel ({{PIE|*''dʰē-''}} "to put", {{PIE|*''bʰwā-''}} "to grow", {{PIE|*''dō-''}} "to give"), while this restriction did not hold for vowel-initial roots ({{PIE|*''ed-''}} "to eat", {{PIE|*''aǵ-''}} "to drive", {{PIE|*''od-''}} "to smell"). [[Laryngeal theory]] can explain this behaviour by reconstructing a laryngeal following the vowel ({{PIE|*''dʰeh₁-'', *''bʰweh₂-'', *''deh₃-''}}, resulting in a long vowel) or preceding it ({{PIE|*''h₁ed-'', *''h₂eǵ-'', ''*h₃ed-''}}, resulting in a short vowel). These reconstructions obey the mentioned rules.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Meier-Brügger|Fritz|Mayrhofer|2003|loc=L 321}}</ref>
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| === Roots without a full grade ===
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| Some roots have no central {{PIE|*''e''}}, an example being {{PIE|*''bʰuH-''}} "to grow, to become". Such roots can be seen as generalized zero grades of forms like {{PIE|**''bʰweH-''}},<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Rix|2001|pp=98–99}}</ref> and thus follow the phonotactical rules.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Jasanoff|2003|p=112}}</ref>
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| === Exceptions ===
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| Some roots like {{PIE|*''pster-''}} "to sneeze" or {{PIE|*''pteh₂k-''}} "to duck" do not appear to follow these rules.<ref name="LIV" /> This might be due to incomplete understanding of PIE phonotactics or to wrong reconstructions. {{PIE|*''pster-''}}, for example, might not have existed in PIE at all, if the Indo-European words usually traced back to it are [[onomatopoeia]]s.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|Adams|1997|p=[http://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC&pg=PA133&lpg=PA133&dq=%22pster%22+%2B+%22onomatopoeia%22&source=bl&ots=wUn3-2d98K&sig=5RJq7uTME87G5Me-x7EOApLSySQ&hl=en&ei=emtaStChBIqkMdOPxEI&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1 133]}}</ref>
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| [[Thorn cluster]]s are sequences of a dental ({{PIE|*''t'' *''d'' *''dʰ''}}) plus a velar plosive ({{PIE|*''k'' *''g'' *''gʰ''}} etc.).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|pp=59–60}}</ref> Their role in PIE phonotactics is unknown. Roots like {{PIE|*''dʰgʷʰei-''}} "to perish" apparently violate the phonotactical rules, but are quite common.
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| ==Lexical meaning==
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| The meaning of a reconstructed root is conventionally that of a verb; the terms ''root'' and ''verbal root'' are almost synonymous in PIE grammar. This is because, apart from a limited number of so-called [[Proto-Indo-European noun#Root nouns|root nouns]], PIE roots overwhelmingly participate in verbal inflection through well-established morphological and phonological mechanisms. Their meanings are not always directly reconstructible, due to [[semantic shift]]s that led to discrepancies in the meanings of [[Reflex (linguistics)|reflexes]] in the attested [[daughter language]]s. Many nouns and adjectives are derived from verbal roots via suffixes and ablaut.
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| Nevertheless, some roots did exist that did not have a primary verbal derivation. Apart from the aforementioned root nouns, the most important of these were the so-called [[Caland root]]s, which had adjectival meaning. Such roots generally formed proterokinetic adjectives with the suffix {{PIE|*''-u-''}}, [[Thematic vowel|thematic]] adjectives in {{PIE|*''-ró-''}} and compounding stems in {{PIE|*''-i-''}}. They included at least {{PIE|*''h₁rewdʰ-''}} "red", {{PIE|*''h₂erǵ-''}} "white", {{PIE|*''dʰewb-''}} "deep" and {{PIE|*''gʷreh₂-''}} "heavy".<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Ringe|2006}}</ref>
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| ==Word formation==
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| Fully inflected words are usually formed from a root plus a suffix plus an ending. The suffix is sometimes missing, which has been interpreted as a [[zero suffix]].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|p=108}}</ref> Words with zero suffix are termed ''root verbs'' and ''root nouns''. Beyond this basic structure, there is the [[nasal infix]], a present tense marker, and [[reduplication]], a sort of [[prefix]] with a number of grammatical and derivational functions.<ref name="LIV aspects">{{Harvcoltxt|Rix|2001|pp=14–21}}</ref>
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| ===Finite verbs===
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| {{main|Proto-Indo-European verbs}}
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| Verbal suffixes, including the zero suffix, convey grammatical information about [[Grammatical tense|tense]] and [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]], two grammatical categories that are not clearly distinguished. Present and [[aorist]] are universally recognised, while some of the other aspects remain controversial. Two of the four [[Grammatical mood|moods]], the [[subjunctive]] and the [[optative]], are also formed with suffixes, which sometimes results in forms with two consecutive suffixes: {{PIE|*''bʰér-'''e'''-'''e'''-ti'' > ''*bʰérēti''}} "he would carry", with the first {{PIE|*''e''}} being the present tense marker, and the second the subjunctive marker.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|pp=81–83}}</ref> Reduplication can mark the present and the [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]].<ref name="LIV aspects" />
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| Verbal endings convey information about [[grammatical person]], [[Grammatical number|number]] and [[voice (grammar)|voice]]. The [[imperative mood]] has its own set of endings.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|pp=83–85}}</ref>
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| ===Nouns and adjectives===
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| {{main|Proto-Indo-European nominals}}
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| Nouns are usually derived from roots or verb stems by suffixation or other means (see the [[Proto-Indo-European nominals#Morphology|morphology of the Proto-Indo-European noun]] for some examples). This can hold even for roots that are often translated as nouns: {{PIE|*''ped-''}}, for example, can mean "to tread" or "foot", depending on the ablaut grade and ending. Some nouns like {{PIE|*''agʷn-o-''}} "lamb" or {{PIE|*''h₂ster-''}} "star", however, are not derived from verbal roots.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|pp=116, 302}}</ref> In any case, the meaning of a noun is given by its stem, whether this is composed of a root plus a suffix or not. This leaves the ending, which conveys [[Grammatical case|case]] and number.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|p=103}}</ref>
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| Adjectives are also derived by suffixation of (usually verbal) roots. An example is {{PIE|*''ǵn̥h₁-tó-s''}} "begotten, produced" from the root {{PIE|*''ǵenh₁-''}} "to beget, to produce". The endings are the same as with nouns.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|pp=120–121}}</ref>
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| ===Infinitives and participles===
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| [[Infinitive]]s are verbal nouns and, just like other nouns, are formed with suffixes. It is not clear whether any of the infinitive suffixes reconstructed from the daughter languages ({{PIE|*''-dʰje-'', *''-tu-'', *''-ti-''}}, among others) was actually used to express an infinitive in PIE.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|p=97}}</ref>
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| [[Participle]]s are verbal adjectives formed with the suffixes {{PIE|*''-ent-''}} ([[Active voice|active]] [[Imperfective aspect|imperfective]] and aorist participle), {{PIE|*''-wos-''}} (perfect participle) and {{PIE|*''-mh₁no-''}} or {{PIE|*''-m(e)no-''}} ([[Mediopassive voice|mediopassive]] participle), among others.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|pp=97–98}}</ref>
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| == Root extensions ==
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| Root extensions are additions of one or two sounds, often plosives, to the end of a root which do not seem to change its meaning. For {{PIE|*''(s)teu-''}} "to push, hit, thrust", we can reconstruct
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| *{{PIE|*''(s)teu-'''k'''-''}} > [[Ancient Greek]] ''τύ'''κ'''ος'' (''tú'''k'''os'') "hammer"
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| *{{PIE|*''(s)teu-'''g'''-''}} > [[English language|English]] ''sto'''k'''e'' (Germanic ''k'' goes back to PIE {{PIE|*''g''}}.)
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| *{{PIE|*''(s)teu-'''d'''-''}} > [[Vedic Sanskrit|Vedic]] ''tu'''d'''áti'' "beats"
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| The source of these extensions is not known.<ref name="Fortson 2004" />
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| == See also ==
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| * ''[[Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben]]'' (''"Lexicon of the Indo-European Verbs"'', in German), a lexicon of PIE verbal roots
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| == Notes ==
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| {{Reflist|2}}
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| == References ==
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| * {{cite book |last1=Brugmann |first1=Karl |author1-link=Karl Brugmann |last2=Delbrück |first2=Berthold |author2-link=Berthold Delbrück |title=[[Grundriß der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen]] |year=1886 |ref=harv}}
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| * {{cite book |last=Buck |first=Carl Darling |author-link=Carl Darling Buck |title=A dictionary of selected synonyms in the principal Indo-European languages: A contribution to the history of ideas (Reprint edition) |publisher=University of Chicago Press |date=15 June 1988 |isbn=0-226-07937-6 |ref=harv}}
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| * {{cite book |last=Fortson |first=Benjamin W., IV |title=Indo-European Language and Culture |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2004 |isbn=1-4051-0316-7 |ref=harv}}
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| * {{cite book |last=Jasanoff |first=Jay |authorlink=Jay Jasanoff |title=Hittite and the Indo-European Verb |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-19-928198-X |ref=harv}}
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| * {{cite book |last=Köbler |first=Gerhard |title=Indogermanisches Wörterbuch | trans_title=Indo-European Dictionary | language=German | year=1980 |url=http://www.koeblergerhard.de/idgwbhin.html |ref=harv}}
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| * {{cite book |last1=Mallory|first1=J. P. |author1-link=J. P. Mallory |last2=Adams|first2=D. Q. |author2-link=Douglas Q. Adams |title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture |publisher=Routledge |year=1997 |isbn=1-884964-98-2 |ref=harv}}
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| * {{cite book |first1=Michael |last1=Meier-Brügger |author1-link=Michael Meier-Brügger |first2=Matthias |last2=Fritz |first3=Manfred |last3=Mayrhofer |author3-link=Manfred Mayrhofer |title=Indo-European Linguistics |year=2003 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=3-11-017433-2 |location=Berlin; New York |ref=harv}}
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| * {{cite book |last=Pokorny |first=Julius |author-link=Julius Pokorny |title=[[Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch]] |publisher=French & European Publications |year=1959 |isbn=0-8288-6602-3 |ref=harv}}
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| * {{cite book |last1=Ringe |first1=Don |author1-link=Don Ringe |title=A Linguistic History of English part 1: From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic |year=2006}}
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| * {{cite book |last=Rix |first=Helmut |author-link=Helmut Rix |title=[[Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben]] |publisher=Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag |year=2001 |isbn=3-89500-219-4 |ref=harv}}
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| * {{cite book |last=Watkins |first=Calvert |author-link=Calvert Watkins |title=The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European roots: Second Edition |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |date=14 September 2000 |isbn=0-395-98610-9 |ref=harv}}
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| == External links ==
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| {{wiktionary|Appendix:List of Proto-Indo-European roots}}
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| * [http://web.archive.org/web/20080726143746/http://www.bartleby.com/61/IEroots.html American Heritage Indo-European Roots Index]
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| * [http://www.ieed.nl/cgi-bin/startq.cgi?flags=endnnnl&root=leiden&basename=%5Cdata%5Cie%5Cpokorny Database query to the online version of Pokorny's PIE dictionary]
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| * [http://homepage.ntlworld.com/richard.wordingham/pok/pok_index.htm Index to the online version of Pokorny's PIE dictionary]
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| * Jonathan Slocum, [http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/ielex/ Indo-European Lexicon] from the University of Texas Linguistic Research Center
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| {{Proto-Indo-European language}}
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| {{good article}}
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| [[Category:Proto-Indo-European language|Roots]]
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| [[Category:Linguistic root|Indo-European]]
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| [[br:Roll gwrizioù indezeuropek]]
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| [[de:Indogermanische Wortwurzeln]]
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| [[fr:Racine indo-européenne]]
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| [[gl:Lista de raíces indoeuropeas]]
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| [[it:Elenco di radici indoeuropee]]
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| [[la:Index radicum Indoeuropaearum]]
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| [[zh:原始印歐詞根]]
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