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| {{Other uses|Force (disambiguation)|Forcing (disambiguation)}}
| | Ping just what her husband loves to call her but she doesn't like when people use her full phone. North Carolina is earn money . place I have been residing in but I'm going to have to get in yearly or multiple. One of stuff I love most is dogs but now I'm looking for earn cash with it. Since he was 18 he's been employed as a software developer but he's always wanted his business.<br><br>Also visit my weblog ... [http://help-forums.adobe.com/home/users/ims/4853/ims-4853248D53F5544E0A4C98C6@AdobeID/profile.form.html/content/adobeforums/en/user/profile/view/ Singapore] |
| {{pp-protected|expiry=2014-05-03T13:36:02Z|small=yes}}
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| {{Infobox Physical quantity
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| | bgcolour = {default}
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| | name = Force
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| | image = [[File:Force examples.svg|thumb]]
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| | caption = Forces are also described as a push or pull on an object. They can be due to phenomena such as [[gravity]], [[magnetism]], or anything that might cause a mass to accelerate.
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| | basequantities = 1 [[kilogram|kg]]·[[metre|m]]/[[second|s]]<sup>2</sup>
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| | unit = [[newton (unit)|newton]]
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| | symbols = ''F'', '''F'''
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| | derivations = '''F''' = ''[[Mass|m]]'' [[Acceleration|'''a''']]
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| }}
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| {{Classical mechanics|cTopic=Fundamental concepts}}
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| In [[physics]], a '''force''' is any influence that causes an [[Physical body|object]] to undergo a certain change, either concerning its movement, direction, or geometrical construction. In other words, a force can cause an object with [[mass]] to change its [[velocity]] (which includes to begin moving from a [[Newton's first law|state of rest]]), i.e., to [[accelerate]], or a flexible object to [[Deformation (engineering)|deform]], or both. Force can also be described by intuitive concepts such as a push or a pull. A force has both [[Euclidean vector#Length|magnitude]] and [[Direction (geometry, geography)|direction]], making it a [[Vector (geometric)|vector]] quantity. It is measured in the [[SI unit]] of [[newton (unit)|newton]]s and represented by the symbol '''F'''.
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| The original form of [[Newton's second law]] states that the net force acting upon an object is equal to the [[time derivative|rate]] at which its [[momentum]] changes with time. If the mass of the object is constant, this law implies that the [[acceleration]] of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on the object, is in the direction of the net force, and is inversely proportional to the [[mass]] of the object. As a formula, this is expressed as:
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| :<math>\vec{F} = m \vec{a}</math>
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| where the arrows imply a vector quantity possessing both magnitude and direction.
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| Related concepts to force include: [[thrust]], which increases the velocity of an object; [[Drag (physics)|drag]], which decreases the velocity of an object; and [[torque]] which produces [[angular acceleration|changes in rotational speed]] of an object. In an extended body, each part usually applies forces on the adjacent parts; the distribution of such forces through the body is the so-called [[stress (mechanics)|mechanical stress]]. [[Pressure]] is a simple type of stress. Stress usually causes [[deformation (engineering)|deformation]] of solid materials, or flow in [[fluid]]s.
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| ==Development of the concept==
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| Philosophers in [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]] used the concept of force in the study of [[statics|stationary]] and [[dynamics (physics)|moving]] objects and [[simple machine]]s, but thinkers such as [[Aristotle]] and [[Archimedes]] retained fundamental errors in understanding force. In part this was due to an incomplete understanding of the sometimes non-obvious force of [[friction]], and a consequently inadequate view of the nature of natural motion.<ref name="Archimedes">{{cite web |last=Heath, T.L. |url=http://www.archive.org/details/worksofarchimede029517mbp |title=''The Works of Archimedes'' (1897). The unabridged work in PDF form (19 MB) |publisher=[[Internet Archive]] |accessdate=2007-10-14}}</ref> A fundamental error was the belief that a force is required to maintain motion, even at a constant velocity. Most of the previous misunderstandings about motion and force were eventually corrected by [[Sir Isaac Newton]]; with his mathematical insight, he formulated [[Newton's laws of motion|laws of motion]] that were not improved-on for nearly three hundred years.<ref name=uniphysics_ch2/> By the early 20th century, [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] developed a [[theory of relativity]] that correctly predicted the action of forces on objects with increasing momenta near the speed of light, and also provided insight into the forces produced by gravitation and [[inertia]].
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| With modern insights into [[quantum mechanics]] and technology that can accelerate particles close to the speed of light, [[particle physics]] has devised a [[Standard Model]] to describe forces between particles smaller than atoms. The [[Standard Model]] predicts that exchanged particles called [[gauge boson]]s are the fundamental means by which forces are emitted and absorbed. Only four main interactions are known: in order of decreasing strength, they are: [[strong force|strong]], [[electromagnetic force|electromagnetic]], [[weak force|weak]], and [[gravitational force|gravitational]].<ref name=FeynmanVol1>{{harvnb|Feynman volume 1}}</ref>{{rp|2-10}}<ref name=Kleppner />{{rp|79}} [[High energy physics|High-energy particle physics]] [[observation]]s made during the 1970s and 1980s confirmed that the weak and electromagnetic forces are expressions of a more fundamental [[electroweak]] interaction.<ref name="final theory"/>
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| ==Pre-Newtonian concepts==
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| {{see also|Aristotelian physics|Theory of impetus}}
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| [[File:Aristoteles Louvre2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Aristotle]] famously described a force as anything that causes an object to undergo "unnatural motion"]]
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| Since antiquity the concept of force has been recognized as integral to the functioning of each of the [[simple machine]]s. The [[mechanical advantage]] given by a simple machine allowed for less force to be used in exchange for that force acting over a greater distance for the same amount of [[work (physics)|work]]. Analysis of the characteristics of forces ultimately culminated in the work of [[Archimedes]] who was especially famous for formulating a treatment of [[buoyant force]]s inherent in [[fluid]]s.<ref name="Archimedes"/>
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| [[Aristotle]] provided a [[philosophical]] discussion of the concept of a force as an integral part of [[Physics (Aristotle)|Aristotelian cosmology]]. In Aristotle's view, the [[nature|natural world]] held [[Classical element|four elements]] that existed in "natural states". Aristotle believed that it was the natural state of objects with [[mass]] on [[Earth]], such as the elements water and earth, to be motionless on the ground and that they tended towards that state if left alone. He distinguished between the innate tendency of objects to find their "natural place" (e.g., for heavy bodies to fall), which led to "natural motion", and unnatural or forced motion, which required continued application of a force.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lang|first=Helen S.|title=The order of nature in Aristotle's physics : place and the elements|year=1998|publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=9780521624534|edition=1. publ.}}</ref> This theory, based on the everyday experience of how objects move, such as the constant application of a force needed to keep a cart moving, had conceptual trouble accounting for the behavior of [[projectile]]s, such as the flight of arrows. The place where forces were applied to projectiles was only at the start of the flight, and while the projectile sailed through the air, no discernible force acts on it. Aristotle was aware of this problem and proposed that the air displaced through the projectile's path provided the needed force to continue the projectile moving. This explanation demands that air is needed for projectiles and that, for example, in a [[vacuum]], no projectile would move after the initial push. Additional problems with the explanation include the fact that [[Air resistance|air resists]] the motion of the projectiles.<ref name="Hetherington">{{cite book |first=Norriss S. |last=Hetherington |title=Cosmology: Historical, Literary, Philosophical, Religious, and Scientific Perspectives |page=100 |publisher= Garland Reference Library of the Humanities |year=1993 |isbn=0-8153-1085-4}}</ref>
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| [[Aristotelian physics]] began facing criticism in [[Science in the Middle Ages|Medieval science]], first by [[John Philoponus]] in the 6th century.
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| The shortcomings of Aristotelian physics would not be fully corrected until the 17th century work of [[Galileo Galilei]], who was influenced by the late Medieval idea that objects in forced motion carried an innate force of [[impetus theory|impetus]]. Galileo constructed an experiment in which stones and cannonballs were both rolled down an incline to disprove the [[Aristotelian theory of gravity|Aristotelian theory of motion]] early in the 17th century. He showed that the bodies were accelerated by gravity to an extent which was independent of their mass and argued that objects retain their [[velocity]] unless acted on by a force, for example [[friction]].<ref name="Galileo">Drake, Stillman (1978). Galileo At Work. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-16226-5</ref>
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| ==Newtonian mechanics==
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| {{main|Newton's laws of motion}}
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| Sir Isaac Newton sought to describe the motion of all objects using the concepts of [[inertia]] and force, and in doing so he found that they obey certain [[conservation laws]]. In 1687, Newton went on to publish his thesis ''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]''.<ref name=uniphysics_ch2/><ref name="Principia">{{Cite book
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| |last=Newton
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| |first=Isaac
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| |author-link=Isaac Newton
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| |title=The Principia Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy
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| |publisher=University of California Press |year=1999 |location=Berkeley
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| |isbn=0-520-08817-4}} This is a recent translation into English by I. Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman, with help from Julia Budenz.</ref> In this work Newton set out three laws of motion that to this day are the way forces are described in physics.<ref name="Principia"/>
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| ===First law===
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| {{main|Newton's first law}}
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| Newton's First Law of Motion states that objects continue to move in a state of constant velocity unless acted upon by an external [[net force]] or ''resultant force''.<ref name="Principia"/> This law is an extension of Galileo's insight that constant velocity was associated with a lack of net force (see [[#Dynamic equilibrium|a more detailed description of this below]]). Newton proposed that every object with mass has an innate [[inertia]] that functions as the fundamental equilibrium "natural state" in place of the Aristotelian idea of the "natural state of rest". That is, the first law contradicts the intuitive Aristotelian belief that a net force is required to keep an object moving with constant velocity. By making ''rest'' physically indistinguishable from ''non-zero constant velocity'', Newton's First Law directly connects inertia with the concept of [[Galilean relativity|relative velocities]]. Specifically, in systems where objects are moving with different velocities, it is impossible to determine which object is "in motion" and which object is "at rest". In other words, to phrase matters more technically, the laws of physics are the same in every [[inertial frame of reference]], that is, in all frames related by a [[Galilean transformation]].
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| For instance, while traveling in a moving vehicle at a [[wikt:Constant|constant]] [[velocity]], the laws of physics do not change from being at rest. A person can throw a ball straight up in the air and catch it as it falls down without worrying about applying a force in the direction the vehicle is moving. This is true even though another person who is observing the moving vehicle pass by also observes the ball follow a curving [[parabola|parabolic path]] in the same direction as the motion of the vehicle. It is the inertia of the ball associated with its constant velocity in the direction of the vehicle's motion that ensures the ball continues to move forward even as it is thrown up and falls back down. From the perspective of the person in the car, the vehicle and everything inside of it is at rest: It is the outside world that is moving with a constant speed in the opposite direction. Since there is no experiment that can distinguish whether it is the vehicle that is at rest or the outside world that is at rest, the two situations are considered to be [[Galilean equivalence|physically indistinguishable]]. Inertia therefore applies equally well to constant velocity motion as it does to rest.
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| The concept of inertia can be further generalized to explain the tendency of objects to continue in many different forms of constant motion, even those that are not strictly constant velocity. The [[rotational inertia]] of planet Earth is what fixes the constancy of the length of a [[day]] and the length of a [[year]]. Albert Einstein extended the principle of inertia further when he explained that reference frames subject to constant acceleration, such as those free-falling toward a gravitating object, were physically equivalent to inertial reference frames. This is why, for example, astronauts experience [[weightlessness]] when in free-fall orbit around the Earth, and why Newton's Laws of Motion are more easily discernible in such environments. If an astronaut places an object with mass in mid-air next to himself, it will remain stationary with respect to the astronaut due to its inertia. This is the same thing that would occur if the astronaut and the object were in intergalactic space with no net force of gravity acting on their shared reference frame. This [[principle of equivalence]] was one of the foundational underpinnings for the development of the [[general theory of relativity]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Robert |last=DiSalle |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spacetime-iframes/ |accessdate=2008-03-24 |title=Space and Time: Inertial Frames |date=2002-03-30 |work=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]}}</ref>
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| [[File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg|right|thumb|Though [[Sir Isaac Newton]]'s most famous equation is<br>
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| <math>\scriptstyle{\vec{F}=m\vec{a}}</math>, he actually wrote down a different form for his second law of motion that did not use [[differential calculus]].]]
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| ===Second law===
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| {{main|Newton's second law}}
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| A modern statement of Newton's Second Law is a vector [[differential equation]]:<ref group=Note>Newton's ''Principia Mathematica'' actually used a finite difference version of this equation based upon ''impulse''. See ''[[Newton's laws of motion#Impulse|Impulse]]''.</ref>
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| :<math>\vec{F} = \frac{\mathrm{d}\vec{p}}{\mathrm{d}t},</math>
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| where <math>\scriptstyle \vec{p}</math> is the [[momentum]] of the system, and <math>\scriptstyle \vec{F}</math> is the net ([[Vector (geometric)#Addition and subtraction|vector sum]]) force. In equilibrium, there is zero ''net'' force by definition, but (balanced) forces may be present nevertheless. In contrast, the second law states an ''unbalanced'' force acting on an object will result in the object's momentum changing over time.<ref name="Principia"/>
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| By the definition of [[Momentum#Linear momentum of a particle|momentum]],
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| :<math>\vec{F} = \frac{\mathrm{d}\vec{p}}{\mathrm{d}t} = \frac{\mathrm{d}\left(m\vec{v}\right)}{\mathrm{d}t},</math>
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| where ''m'' is the [[mass]] and <math>\scriptstyle \vec{v}</math> is the [[velocity]].<ref name=FeynmanVol1/>{{rp|9-1,9-2}}
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| Newton's second law applies only to a system of [[Newton's Laws of Motion#Open systems|constant mass]],<ref name=Halliday group=Note>"It is important to note that we ''cannot'' derive a general expression for Newton's second law for variable mass systems by treating the mass in '''F''' = ''d'''''P'''/''dt'' = ''d''(''M'''''v''') as a ''variable''. [...] We ''can'' use '''F''' = ''d'''''P'''/''dt'' to analyze variable mass systems ''only'' if we apply it to an ''entire system of constant mass'' having parts among which there is an interchange of mass." [Emphasis as in the original] {{harv|Halliday|Resnick |Krane|2001|p=199}}</ref> and hence ''m'' may be moved outside the derivative operator. The equation then becomes
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| :<math>\vec{F} = m\frac{\mathrm{d}\vec{v}}{\mathrm{d}t}.</math>
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| By substituting the definition of [[acceleration]], the algebraic version of [[Newton's Second Law]] is derived:
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| :<math>\vec{F} =m\vec{a}.</math>
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| Newton never explicitly stated the formula in the reduced form above.{{citation needed|date=October 2013}}
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| Newton's Second Law asserts the direct proportionality of acceleration to force and the inverse proportionality of acceleration to mass. Accelerations can be defined through [[kinematic]] measurements. However, while kinematics are well-described through [[frame of reference|reference frame]] analysis in advanced physics, there are still deep questions that remain as to what is the proper definition of mass. [[General relativity]] offers an equivalence between [[space-time]] and mass, but lacking a coherent theory of [[quantum gravity]], it is unclear as to how or whether this connection is relevant on microscales. With some justification, Newton's second law can be taken as a quantitative definition of ''mass'' by writing the law as an equality; the relative units of force and mass then are fixed.
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| The use of Newton's Second Law as a ''definition'' of force has been disparaged in some of the more rigorous textbooks,<ref name=FeynmanVol1 />{{rp|12-1}}<ref name=Kleppner />{{rp|59}}<ref>One exception to this rule is: {{Cite book |last=Landau |first=L. D. |author-link=Lev Landau |last2=Akhiezer |author2-link=Aleksander Ilyich Akhiezer|first2=A. I. |last3=Lifshitz |first3=A. M. |author3-link=Evgeny Lifshitz |title=General Physics; mechanics and molecular physics |publisher=Pergamon Press |year=196 |location=Oxford |edition=First English |isbn=0-08-003304-0}}
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| Translated by: J. B. Sykes, A. D. Petford, and C. L. Petford. Library of Congress Catalog Number 67-30260. In section 7, pages 12–14, this book defines force as ''dp/dt''.</ref> because it is essentially a mathematical [[truism]]. Notable physicists, philosophers and mathematicians who have sought a more explicit definition of the concept of force include [[Ernst Mach]], [[Clifford Truesdell]]{{citation needed|date=October 2013}} and [[Walter Noll]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Jammer|first=Max|title=Concepts of force : a study in the foundations of dynamics|year=1999|publisher=Dover Publications|location=Mineola, N.Y.|isbn=9780486406893|pages=220–222|edition=Facsim.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Walter |last=Noll |title=On the Concept of Force |url=http://www.math.cmu.edu/~wn0g/Force.pdf |format=pdf |publisher=Carnegie Mellon University |date=April 2007 |accessdate=28 October 2013}}</ref>
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| Newton's Second Law can be used to measure the strength of forces. For instance, knowledge of the masses of [[planet]]s along with the accelerations of their [[orbit]]s allows scientists to calculate the gravitational forces on planets.
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| ===Third law===
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| {{main|Newton's third law}}
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| Newton's Third Law is a result of applying [[symmetry]] to situations where forces can be attributed to the presence of different objects. The third law means that all forces are ''interactions'' between different bodies,<ref>{{cite journal
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| |title=Newton's third law revisited
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| |author=C. Hellingman
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| |journal=Phys. Educ.
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| |volume=27
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| |year=1992
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| |issue=2
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| |pages=112–115
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| |quote=Quoting Newton in the ''Principia'': It is not one action by which the Sun attracts Jupiter, and another by which Jupiter attracts the Sun; but it is one action by which the Sun and Jupiter mutually endeavour to come nearer together.
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| |doi=10.1088/0031-9120/27/2/011 |bibcode=1992PhyEd..27..112H}}</ref><ref group=Note>"Any single force is only one aspect of a mutual interaction between ''two'' bodies." {{harv|Halliday|Resnick |Krane|2001|pp=78–79}}</ref> and thus that there is no such thing as a unidirectional force or a force that acts on only one body. Whenever a first body exerts a force '''''F''''' on a second body, the second body exerts a force −'''''F''''' on the first body. '''''F''''' and −'''''F''''' are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. This law is sometimes referred to as the ''[[Reaction (physics)|action-reaction law]]'', with '''''F''''' called the "action" and −'''''F''''' the "reaction". The action and the reaction are simultaneous:
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| :<math>\vec{F}_{1,2}=-\vec{F}_{2,1}.</math>
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| If object 1 and object 2 are considered to be in the same system, then the net force on the system due to the interactions between objects 1 and 2 is zero since
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| :<math>\vec{F}_{1,2}+\vec{F}_{\mathrm{2,1}}=0</math>
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| :<math>\sum{\vec{F}}=0.</math>
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| This means that in a [[closed system]] of particles, there are no [[internal force]]s that are unbalanced. That is, the action-reaction force shared between any two objects in a closed system will not cause the [[center of mass]] of the system to accelerate. The constituent objects only accelerate with respect to each other, the system itself remains unaccelerated. Alternatively, if an [[external force]] acts on the system, then the center of mass will experience an acceleration proportional to the magnitude of the external force divided by the mass of the system.<ref name=FeynmanVol1 />{{rp|19-1}}<ref name=Kleppner />
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| Combining Newton's Second and Third Laws, it is possible to show that the [[Conservation of momentum|linear momentum of a system is conserved]]. Using
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| :<math>\vec{F}_{1,2} = \frac{\mathrm{d}\vec{p}_{1,2}}{\mathrm{d}t} = -\vec{F}_{2,1} = -\frac{\mathrm{d}\vec{p}_{2,1}}{\mathrm{d}t}</math>
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| and [[integral|integrating]] with respect to time, the equation:
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| :<math>\Delta{\vec{p}_{1,2}} = - \Delta{\vec{p}_{2,1}}</math>
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| is obtained. For a system which includes objects 1 and 2,
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| :<math>\sum{\Delta{\vec{p}}}=\Delta{\vec{p}_{1,2}} + \Delta{\vec{p}_{2,1}} = 0</math>
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| which is the conservation of linear momentum.<ref>{{cite web |last=Dr. Nikitin |title=Dynamics of translational motion |year=2007 |url=http://physics-help.info/physicsguide/mechanics/translational_dynamics.shtml |accessdate=2008-01-04}}</ref> Using the similar arguments, it is possible to generalize this to a system of an arbitrary number of particles. This shows that exchanging momentum between constituent objects will not affect the net momentum of a system. In general, as long as all forces are due to the interaction of objects with mass, it is possible to define a system such that net momentum is never lost nor gained.<ref name=FeynmanVol1 /><ref name=Kleppner />
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| ==Special relativity==
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| In the [[special theory of relativity]], mass and [[energy]] are equivalent (as can be seen by calculating the work required to accelerate an object). When an object's velocity increases, so does its energy and hence its mass equivalent (inertia). It thus requires more force to accelerate it the same amount than it did at a lower velocity. Newton's Second Law
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| :<math>\vec{F} = \mathrm{d}\vec{p}/\mathrm{d}t</math>
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| remains valid because it is a mathematical definition.<ref name=Cutnell>{{harvnb|Cutnell|Johnson|2003}}</ref>{{rp|855–876}} But in order to be conserved, relativistic momentum must be redefined as:
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| :<math> \vec{p} = \frac{m_0\vec{v}}{\sqrt{1 - v^2/c^2}}</math>
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| where
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| :<math>v</math> is the velocity and
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| :<math>c</math> is the [[speed of light]]
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| :<math>m_0</math> is the [[rest mass]].
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| The relativistic expression relating force and acceleration for a particle with constant non-zero [[rest mass]] <math>m</math> moving in the <math>x</math> direction is:
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| :<math>F_x = \gamma^3 m a_x \,</math>
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| :<math>F_y = \gamma m a_y \,</math>
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| :<math>F_z = \gamma m a_z \,</math>
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| where the [[Lorentz factor]]
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| :<math> \gamma = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1 - v^2/c^2}}.</math><ref>{{cite web
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| |title=Seminar: Visualizing Special Relativity
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| |work=The Relativistic Raytracer
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| |url=http://www.anu.edu.au/Physics/Searle/Obsolete/Seminar.html
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| |accessdate=2008-01-04}}</ref>
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| In the early history of relativity, the expressions <math>\gamma^3 m</math> and <math>\gamma m</math> were called [[Mass in special relativity#Transverse and longitudinal mass|longitudinal and transverse mass]]. Relativistic force does not produce a constant acceleration, but an ever decreasing acceleration as the object approaches the speed of light. Note that <math> \gamma</math> is [[Division by zero|undefined]] for an object with a non-zero [[Invariant mass|rest mass]] at the speed of light, and the theory yields no prediction at that speed.
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| One can, however, restore the form of
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| :<math>F^\mu = mA^\mu \,</math>
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| for use in relativity through the use of [[four-vectors]]. This relation is correct in relativity when <math>F^\mu</math> is the [[four-force]], <math>m</math> is the [[invariant mass]], and <math>A^\mu</math> is the [[four-acceleration]].<ref>{{cite web
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| |first=John B.
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| |last=Wilson
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| |title=Four-Vectors (4-Vectors) of Special Relativity: A Study of Elegant Physics
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| |work=The Science Realm: John's Virtual Sci-Tech Universe
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| |url=http://SciRealm.com/4Vectors.html
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| |accessdate=2008-01-04}}{{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>
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| ==Descriptions==
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| [[File:Freebodydiagram3 pn.svg|thumb|right|[[Diagram]]s of a block on a flat surface and an [[inclined plane]]. Forces are resolved and added together to determine their magnitudes and the net force.]]
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| Since forces are perceived as pushes or pulls, this can provide an intuitive understanding for describing forces.<ref name=uniphysics_ch2/> As with other physical concepts (e.g. [[temperature]]), the intuitive understanding of forces is quantified using precise [[operational definition]]s that are consistent with direct [[sensory perception|observations]] and [[measurement|compared to a standard measurement scale]]. Through experimentation, it is determined that laboratory measurements of forces are fully consistent with the [[conceptual definition]] of force offered by [[#Newtonian mechanics|Newtonian mechanics]].
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| Forces act in a particular [[direction (geometry)|direction]] and have [[Magnitude (mathematics)|sizes]] dependent upon how strong the push or pull is. Because of these characteristics, forces are classified as "[[Euclidean vector|vector quantities]]". This means that forces follow a different set of mathematical rules than physical quantities that do not have direction (denoted [[scalar (physics)|scalar]] quantities). For example, when determining what happens when two forces act on the same object, it is necessary to know both the magnitude and the direction of both forces to calculate the [[resultant|result]]. If both of these pieces of information are not known for each force, the situation is ambiguous. For example, if you know that two people are pulling on the same rope with known magnitudes of force but you do not know which direction either person is pulling, it is impossible to determine what the acceleration of the rope will be. The two people could be pulling against each other as in [[tug of war]] or the two people could be pulling in the same direction. In this simple [[one-dimensional]] example, without knowing the direction of the forces it is impossible to decide whether the net force is the result of adding the two force magnitudes or subtracting one from the other. Associating forces with vectors avoids such problems.
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| Historically, forces were first quantitatively investigated in conditions of [[static equilibrium]] where several forces canceled each other out. Such experiments demonstrate the crucial properties that forces are additive [[Vector (geometric)|vector quantities]]: they have [[magnitude (mathematics)|magnitude]] and direction.<ref name=uniphysics_ch2/> When two forces act on a [[point particle]], the resulting force, the ''resultant'' (also called the ''[[net force]]''), can be determined by following the [[parallelogram rule]] of [[vector addition]]: the addition of two vectors represented by sides of a parallelogram, gives an equivalent resultant vector which is equal in magnitude and direction to the transversal of the parallelogram.<ref name=FeynmanVol1 /><ref name=Kleppner /> The magnitude of the resultant varies from the difference of the magnitudes of the two forces to their sum, depending on the angle between their lines of action. However, if the forces are acting on an extended body, their respective lines of application must also be specified in order to account for their effects on the motion of the body.
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| [[Free-body diagram]]s can be used as a convenient way to keep track of forces acting on a system. Ideally, these diagrams are drawn with the angles and relative magnitudes of the force vectors preserved so that [[Vector (geometric)|graphical vector addition]] can be done to determine the net force.<ref>{{cite web
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| |title=Introduction to Free Body Diagrams
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| |work=Physics Tutorial Menu
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| |publisher=[[University of Guelph]]
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| |url=http://eta.physics.uoguelph.ca/tutorials/fbd/intro.html
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| |accessdate=2008-01-02}}</ref>
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| | |
| As well as being added, forces can also be resolved into independent components at [[right angle]]s to each other. A horizontal force pointing northeast can therefore be split into two forces, one pointing north, and one pointing east. Summing these component forces using vector addition yields the original force. Resolving force vectors into components of a set of [[basis vector]]s is often a more mathematically clean way to describe forces than using magnitudes and directions.<ref>{{cite web
| |
| |first=Tom
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| |last=Henderson
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| |title=The Physics Classroom
| |
| |work=The Physics Classroom and Mathsoft Engineering & Education, Inc.
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| |year=2004
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| |url=http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/GBSSCI/PHYS/Class/vectors/u3l1b.html
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| |accessdate=2008-01-02}}</ref> This is because, for [[orthogonal]] components, the components of the vector sum are uniquely determined by the scalar addition of the components of the individual vectors. Orthogonal components are independent of each other because forces acting at ninety degrees to each other have no effect on the magnitude or direction of the other. Choosing a set of orthogonal basis vectors is often done by considering what set of basis vectors will make the mathematics most convenient. Choosing a basis vector that is in the same direction as one of the forces is desirable, since that force would then have only one non-zero component. Orthogonal force vectors can be three-dimensional with the third component being at right-angles to the other two.<ref name=FeynmanVol1 /><ref name=Kleppner />
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| | |
| ===Equilibrium===
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| [[Mechanical equilibrium|Equilibrium]] occurs when the resultant force acting on a point particle is zero (that is, the vector sum of all forces is zero). When dealing with an extended body, it is also necessary that the net torque in it is 0.
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| | |
| There are two kinds of equilibrium: [[static equilibrium]] and [[#Dynamic equilibrium|dynamic equilibrium]].
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| | |
| ===={{anchor|Static equilibrium}}Static====
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| {{main|Statics|Static equilibrium}}
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| Static equilibrium was understood well before the invention of classical mechanics. Objects which are at rest have zero net force acting on them.<ref>{{cite web
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| |title=Static Equilibrium
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| |work=Physics Static Equilibrium (forces and torques)
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| |publisher=[[University of the Virgin Islands]]
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| |url=http://www.uvi.edu/Physics/SCI3xxWeb/Structure/StaticEq.html
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| |accessdate=2008-01-02 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20071019054156/http://www.uvi.edu/Physics/SCI3xxWeb/Structure/StaticEq.html |archivedate=October 19, 2007}}</ref>
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| The simplest case of static equilibrium occurs when two forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. For example, an object on a level surface is pulled (attracted) downward toward the center of the Earth by the force of gravity. At the same time, surface forces resist the downward force with equal upward force (called the [[normal force]]). The situation is one of zero net force and no acceleration.<ref name=uniphysics_ch2/>
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| Pushing against an object on a frictional surface can result in a situation where the object does not move because the applied force is opposed by [[static friction]], generated between the object and the table surface. For a situation with no movement, the static friction force ''exactly'' balances the applied force resulting in no acceleration. The static friction increases or decreases in response to the applied force up to an upper limit determined by the characteristics of the contact between the surface and the object.<ref name=uniphysics_ch2/>
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| A static equilibrium between two forces is the most usual way of measuring forces, using simple devices such as [[weighing scale]]s and [[spring balance]]s. For example, an object suspended on a vertical [[spring scale]] experiences the force of gravity acting on the object balanced by a force applied by the "spring reaction force" which equals the object's weight. Using such tools, some quantitative force laws were discovered: that the force of gravity is proportional to volume for objects of constant [[density]] (widely exploited for millennia to define standard weights); [[Archimedes' principle]] for buoyancy; Archimedes' analysis of the [[lever]]; [[Boyle's law]] for gas pressure; and [[Hooke's law]] for springs. These were all formulated and experimentally verified before Isaac Newton expounded his [[Newton's Laws of Motion|Three Laws of Motion]].<ref name=uniphysics_ch2/><ref name=FeynmanVol1 /><ref name=Kleppner />
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| ===={{anchor|Dynamical equilibrium|Dynamic equilibrium}}Dynamic====
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| {{main|Dynamics (physics)}}
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| [[File:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg|thumb|[[Galileo Galilei]] was the first to point out the inherent contradictions contained in Aristotle's description of forces.]]
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| Dynamic equilibrium was first described by [[Galileo]] who noticed that certain assumptions of Aristotelian physics were contradicted by observations and [[logic]]. Galileo realized that [[Galilean relativity|simple velocity addition]] demands that the concept of an "absolute [[rest frame]]" did not exist. Galileo concluded that motion in a constant [[velocity]] was completely equivalent to rest. This was contrary to Aristotle's notion of a "natural state" of rest that objects with mass naturally approached. Simple experiments showed that Galileo's understanding of the equivalence of constant velocity and rest were correct. For example, if a mariner dropped a cannonball from the crow's nest of a ship moving at a constant velocity, Aristotelian physics would have the cannonball fall straight down while the ship moved beneath it. Thus, in an Aristotelian universe, the falling cannonball would land behind the foot of the mast of a moving ship. However, when this experiment is actually conducted, the cannonball always falls at the foot of the mast, as if the cannonball knows to travel with the ship despite being separated from it. Since there is no forward horizontal force being applied on the cannonball as it falls, the only conclusion left is that the cannonball continues to move with the same velocity as the boat as it falls. Thus, no force is required to keep the cannonball moving at the constant forward velocity.<ref name="Galileo"/>
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| Moreover, any object traveling at a constant velocity must be subject to zero net force (resultant force). This is the definition of dynamic equilibrium: when all the forces on an object balance but it still moves at a constant velocity.
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| | |
| A simple case of dynamic equilibrium occurs in constant velocity motion across a surface with [[kinetic friction]]. In such a situation, a force is applied in the direction of motion while the kinetic friction force exactly opposes the applied force. This results in zero net force, but since the object started with a non-zero velocity, it continues to move with a non-zero velocity. Aristotle misinterpreted this motion as being caused by the applied force. However, when kinetic friction is taken into consideration it is clear that there is no net force causing constant velocity motion.<ref name=FeynmanVol1 /><ref name=Kleppner />
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| | |
| ===Feynman diagrams===
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| {{main|Feynman diagrams}}
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| [[File:Beta Negative Decay.svg|thumb|right|Feynman diagram for the decay of a neutron into a proton. The [[W boson]] is between two vertices indicating a repulsion.]]
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| In modern [[particle physics]], forces and the acceleration of particles are explained as a mathematical by-product of exchange of momentum-carrying [[gauge boson]]s. With the development of [[quantum field theory]] and [[general relativity]], it was realized that force is a redundant concept arising from [[conservation of momentum]] ([[4-momentum]] in relativity and momentum of [[virtual particle]]s in [[quantum electrodynamics]]). The conservation of momentum, can be directly derived from homogeneity [[Symmetry in physics|(=shift symmetry)]] of [[space]] and so is usually considered more fundamental than the concept of a force. Thus the currently known [[fundamental forces]] are considered more accurately to be "[[fundamental interactions]]".<ref name="final theory">{{cite book|last=Weinberg |first=S. |year=1994 |title=Dreams of a Final Theory |publisher=Vintage Books USA |isbn=0-679-74408-8}}</ref>{{rp|199–128}} When particle A emits (creates) or absorbs (annihilates) virtual particle B, a momentum conservation results in recoil of particle A making impression of repulsion or attraction between particles A A' exchanging by B. This description applies to all forces arising from fundamental interactions. While sophisticated mathematical descriptions are needed to predict, in full detail, the accurate result of such interactions, there is a conceptually simple way to describe such interactions through the use of Feynman diagrams. In a Feynman diagram, each matter particle is represented as a straight line (see [[world line]]) traveling through time which normally increases up or to the right in the diagram. Matter and anti-matter particles are identical except for their direction of propagation through the Feynman diagram. World lines of particles intersect at [[interaction vertex|interaction vertices]], and the Feynman diagram represents any force arising from an interaction as occurring at the vertex with an associated instantaneous change in the direction of the particle world lines. Gauge bosons are emitted away from the vertex as wavy lines and, in the case of virtual particle exchange, are absorbed at an adjacent vertex.<ref name=Shifman>{{cite book |first=Mikhail |last=Shifman |title=ITEP lectures on particle physics and field theory |publisher=World Scientific |year=1999 |isbn=981-02-2639-X}}</ref>
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| The utility of Feynman diagrams is that other types of physical phenomena that are part of the general picture of [[fundamental interaction]]s but are conceptually separate from forces can also be described using the same rules. For example, a Feynman diagram can describe in succinct detail how a [[neutron]] [[beta decay|decays]] into an [[electron]], [[proton]], and [[neutrino]], an interaction mediated by the same gauge boson that is responsible for the [[weak nuclear force]].<ref name="Shifman"/>
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| ==Fundamental models==
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| {{main|Fundamental interaction}}
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| All of the forces in the universe are based on four [[fundamental interaction]]s. The [[strong force|strong]] and [[weak force|weak]] forces are [[nuclear force]]s that act only at very short distances, and are responsible for the interactions between [[subatomic particle]]s, including [[nucleons]] and compound [[Atomic nucleus|nuclei]]. The [[electromagnetic force]] acts between [[electric charge]]s, and the [[gravitational force]] acts between [[mass]]es. All other forces in nature derive from these four fundamental interactions. For example, [[friction]] is a manifestation of the electromagnetic force acting between the [[atom]]s of two [[surface]]s, and the [[Pauli exclusion principle]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Nave |first=Carl Rod |title=Pauli Exclusion Principle |work=HyperPhysics |publisher=University of Guelph |url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/pauli.html |accessdate=2013-10-28}}</ref> which does not permit atoms to pass through each other. Similarly, the forces in [[spring (device)|springs]], modeled by [[Hooke's law]], are the result of electromagnetic forces and the Exclusion Principle acting together to return an object to its [[Mechanical equilibrium|equilibrium]] position. [[Centrifugal force (fictitious)|Centrifugal force]]s are [[acceleration]] forces which arise simply from the acceleration of [[rotation|rotating]] [[frames of reference]].<ref name=FeynmanVol1 />{{rp|12-11}}<ref name=Kleppner />{{rp|359}}
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| The development of fundamental theories for forces proceeded along the lines of [[Unified field theory|unification]] of disparate ideas. For example, Isaac Newton unified the force responsible for objects falling at the surface of the Earth with the force responsible for the orbits of celestial mechanics in his universal theory of gravitation. [[Michael Faraday]] and [[James Clerk Maxwell]] demonstrated that electric and magnetic forces were unified through one consistent theory of electromagnetism. In the 20th century, the development of [[quantum mechanics]] led to a modern understanding that the first three fundamental forces (all except gravity) are manifestations of matter ([[fermion]]s) interacting by exchanging [[virtual particle]]s called [[gauge boson]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Fermions & Bosons |work=The Particle Adventure |url=http://particleadventure.org/frameless/fermibos.html |accessdate=2008-01-04}}</ref> This [[standard model]] of particle physics posits a similarity between the forces and led scientists to predict the unification of the weak and electromagnetic forces in [[electroweak]] theory subsequently confirmed by observation. The complete formulation of the standard model predicts an as yet unobserved [[Higgs mechanism]], but observations such as [[neutrino oscillation]]s indicate that the standard model is incomplete. A [[Grand Unified Theory]] allowing for the combination of the electroweak interaction with the strong force is held out as a possibility with candidate theories such as [[supersymmetry]] proposed to accommodate some of the outstanding [[unsolved problems in physics]]. Physicists are still attempting to develop self-consistent unification models that would combine all four fundamental interactions into a [[theory of everything]]. Einstein tried and failed at this endeavor, but currently the most popular approach to answering this question is [[string theory]].<ref name="final theory"/>{{rp|212–219}}
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| ===Gravity===
| |
| {{main|Gravity}}
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| [[File:Falling ball.jpg|upright|thumb|Images of a freely falling basketball taken with a [[stroboscope]] at 20 flashes per second. The distance units on the right are multiples of about 12 millimetres. The basketball starts at rest. At the time of the first flash (distance zero) it is released, after which the number of units fallen is equal to the square of the number of flashes.]]
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| What we now call gravity was not identified as a universal force until the work of Isaac Newton. Before Newton, the tendency for objects to fall towards the Earth was not understood to be related to the motions of celestial objects. Galileo was instrumental in describing the characteristics of falling objects by determining that the [[acceleration]] of every object in [[free-fall]] was constant and independent of the mass of the object. Today, this [[Gravitational acceleration|acceleration due to gravity]] towards the surface of the Earth is usually designated as <math>\scriptstyle \vec{g}</math> and has a magnitude of about 9.81 [[meter]]s per [[second]] squared (this measurement is taken from sea level and may vary depending on location), and points toward the center of the Earth.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cook |first=A. H. |journal=Nature |title=A New Absolute Determination of the Acceleration due to Gravity at the National Physical Laboratory |date=16-160-1965 |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v208/n5007/abs/208279a0.html |doi=10.1038/208279a0 |accessdate=2008-01-04 |page=279 |volume=208 |bibcode=1965Natur.208..279C |issue=5007}}</ref> This observation means that the force of gravity on an object at the Earth's surface is directly proportional to the object's mass. Thus an object that has a mass of <math>m</math> will experience a force:
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| :<math>\vec{F} = m\vec{g}</math>
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| In free-fall, this force is unopposed and therefore the net force on the object is its weight. For objects not in free-fall, the force of gravity is opposed by the reactions of their supports. For example, a person standing on the ground experiences zero net force, since his weight is balanced by a [[normal force]] exerted by the ground.<ref name=FeynmanVol1 /><ref name=Kleppner />
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| | |
| Newton's contribution to gravitational theory was to unify the motions of heavenly bodies, which Aristotle had assumed were in a natural state of constant motion, with falling motion observed on the Earth. He proposed a [[Newton's law of gravity|law of gravity]] that could account for the celestial motions that had been described earlier using [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion]].<ref name=uniphysics_ch4 />
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| | |
| Newton came to realize that the effects of gravity might be observed in different ways at larger distances. In particular, Newton determined that the acceleration of the Moon around the Earth could be ascribed to the same force of gravity if the acceleration due to gravity decreased as an [[inverse square law]]. Further, Newton realized that the acceleration due to gravity is proportional to the mass of the attracting body.<ref name=uniphysics_ch4 /> Combining these ideas gives a formula that relates the mass (<math>\scriptstyle m_\oplus</math>) and the radius (<math>\scriptstyle R_\oplus</math>) of the Earth to the gravitational acceleration:
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| :<math>\vec{g}=-\frac{Gm_\oplus}{{R_\oplus}^2} \hat{r}</math>
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| | |
| where the vector direction is given by <math>\scriptstyle \hat{r}</math>, the [[unit vector]] directed outward from the center of the Earth.<ref name="Principia"/>
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| In this equation, a dimensional constant <math>G</math> is used to describe the relative strength of gravity. This constant has come to be known as [[Newton's Universal Gravitation Constant]],<ref>{{cite web
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| |title=Sir Isaac Newton: The Universal Law of Gravitation
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| |work=Astronomy 161 The Solar System
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| |url=http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/history/newtongrav.html
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| |accessdate=2008-01-04}}</ref> though its value was unknown in Newton's lifetime. Not until 1798 was [[Henry Cavendish]] able to make the first measurement of <math>G</math> using a [[torsion balance]]; this was widely reported in the press as a measurement of the mass of the Earth since knowing <math>G</math> could allow one to solve for the Earth's mass given the above equation. Newton, however, realized that since all celestial bodies followed the same [[Kepler's laws|laws of motion]], his law of gravity had to be universal. Succinctly stated, [[Newton's Law of Gravitation]] states that the force on a spherical object of mass <math>m_1</math> due to the gravitational pull of mass <math>m_2</math> is
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| :<math>\vec{F}=-\frac{Gm_{1}m_{2}}{r^2} \hat{r}</math>
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| | |
| where <math>r</math> is the distance between the two objects' centers of mass and <math>\scriptstyle \hat{r}</math> is the unit vector pointed in the direction away from the center of the first object toward the center of the second object.<ref name="Principia"/>
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| This formula was powerful enough to stand as the basis for all subsequent descriptions of motion within the solar system until the 20th century. During that time, sophisticated methods of [[perturbation analysis]]<ref>{{cite web
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| |last=Watkins
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| |first=Thayer
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| |title=Perturbation Analysis, Regular and Singular
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| |work=Department of Economics
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| |publisher=San José State University
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| |url=http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/perturb.htm}}</ref> were invented to calculate the deviations of [[orbit]]s due to the influence of multiple bodies on a [[planet]], [[moon]], [[comet]], or [[asteroid]]. The formalism was exact enough to allow mathematicians to predict the existence of the planet [[Neptune]] before it was observed.<ref name='Neptdisc'>{{cite web |url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sts/nk/neptune/index.htm |title=Neptune's Discovery. The British Case for Co-Prediction. |accessdate=2007-03-19 |last=Kollerstrom |first=Nick |year=2001 |publisher=University College London |archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20051111190351/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sts/nk/neptune/index.htm |archivedate=2005-11-11}}</ref>
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| It was only the orbit of the planet [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] that Newton's Law of Gravitation seemed not to fully explain. Some astrophysicists predicted the existence of another planet ([[Vulcan (hypothetical planet)|Vulcan]]) that would explain the discrepancies; however, despite some early indications, no such planet could be found. When [[Albert Einstein]] finally formulated his theory of [[general relativity]] (GR) he turned his attention to the problem of Mercury's orbit and found that his theory added [[Perihelion precession of Mercury|a correction which could account for the discrepancy]]. This was the first time that Newton's Theory of Gravity had been shown to be less correct than an alternative.<ref name=Ein1916>{{cite journal |last=Einstein |first=Albert |authorlink=Albert Einstein |title=The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity |journal=Annalen der Physik |volume=49 |pages=769–822 |year=1916 |url=http://www.alberteinstein.info/gallery/gtext3.html |format=PDF |accessdate=2006-09-03 |bibcode=1916AnP...354..769E |doi=10.1002/andp.19163540702 |issue=7}}</ref>
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| Since then, and so far, general relativity has been acknowledged as the theory which best explains gravity. In GR, gravitation is not viewed as a force, but rather, objects moving freely in gravitational fields travel under their own inertia in [[geodesic|straight lines]] through [[curved space-time]] – defined as the shortest space-time path between two space-time events. From the perspective of the object, all motion occurs as if there were no gravitation whatsoever. It is only when observing the motion in a global sense that the curvature of space-time can be observed and the force is inferred from the object's curved path. Thus, the straight line path in space-time is seen as a curved line in space, and it is called the ''[[external ballistics|ballistic]] [[trajectory]]'' of the object. For example, a [[basketball]] thrown from the ground moves in a [[parabola]], as it is in a uniform gravitational field. Its space-time trajectory (when the extra ct dimension is added) is almost a straight line, slightly curved (with the [[radius of curvature (applications)|radius of curvature]] of the order of few [[light-year]]s). The time derivative of the changing momentum of the object is what we label as "gravitational force".<ref name=Kleppner />
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| | |
| ===Electromagnetic forces===
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| {{main|Electromagnetic force}}
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| The [[electrostatic force]] was first described in 1784 by Coulomb as a force which existed intrinsically between two [[electric charge|charges]].<ref name=Cutnell/>{{rp|519}} The properties of the electrostatic force were that it varied as an [[inverse square law]] directed in the [[polar coordinates|radial direction]], was both attractive and repulsive (there was intrinsic [[Electrical polarity|polarity]]), was independent of the mass of the charged objects, and followed the [[superposition principle]]. [[Coulomb's law]] unifies all these observations into one succinct statement.<ref name="Coulomb">{{cite journal |first=Charles |last=Coulomb |journal=Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences |year=1784 |title=Recherches théoriques et expérimentales sur la force de torsion et sur l'élasticité des fils de metal |pages=229–269}}</ref>
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| Subsequent mathematicians and physicists found the construct of the ''[[electric field]]'' to be useful for determining the electrostatic force on an electric charge at any point in space. The electric field was based on using a hypothetical "[[test charge]]" anywhere in space and then using Coulomb's Law to determine the electrostatic force.<ref name=FeynmanVol2/>{{rp|4-6 to 4-8}} Thus the electric field anywhere in space is defined as
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| :<math>\vec{E} = {\vec{F} \over{q}}</math>
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| where <math>q</math> is the magnitude of the hypothetical test charge.
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| Meanwhile, the [[Lorentz force]] of [[magnetism]] was discovered to exist between two [[electric current]]s. It has the same mathematical character as Coulomb's Law with the proviso that like currents attract and unlike currents repel. Similar to the electric field, the [[magnetic field]] can be used to determine the magnetic force on an electric current at any point in space. In this case, the magnitude of the magnetic field was determined to be
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| :<math>B = {F \over{I \ell}}</math>
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| | |
| where <math>I</math> is the magnitude of the hypothetical test current and <math>\scriptstyle \ell</math> is the length of hypothetical wire through which the test current flows. The magnetic field exerts a force on all [[magnet]]s including, for example, those used in [[compass]]es. The fact that the [[geomagnetism|Earth's magnetic field]] is aligned closely with the orientation of the Earth's [[rotation|axis]] causes compass magnets to become oriented because of the magnetic force pulling on the needle.
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| Through combining the definition of electric current as the time rate of change of electric charge, a rule of [[Cross product|vector multiplication]] called [[Lorentz force|Lorentz's Law]] describes the force on a charge moving in a magnetic field.<ref name=FeynmanVol2/> The connection between electricity and magnetism allows for the description of a unified ''electromagnetic force'' that acts on a charge. This force can be written as a sum of the electrostatic force (due to the electric field) and the magnetic force (due to the magnetic field). Fully stated, this is the law:
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| :<math>\vec{F} = q(\vec{E} + \vec{v} \times \vec{B})</math>
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| | |
| where <math>\scriptstyle \vec{F}</math> is the electromagnetic force, <math>q</math> is the magnitude of the charge of the particle, <math>\scriptstyle \vec{E}</math> is the electric field, <math>\scriptstyle \vec{v}</math> is the [[velocity]] of the particle which is [[cross product|crossed]] with the magnetic field (<math>\scriptstyle \vec{B}</math>).
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| The origin of electric and magnetic fields would not be fully explained until 1864 when [[James Clerk Maxwell]] unified a number of earlier theories into a set of 20 scalar equations, which were later reformulated into 4 vector equations by [[Oliver Heaviside]] and [[Josiah Willard Gibbs]].<ref>{{cite book
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| |title=Polarized light in liquid crystals and polymers
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| |first1=Toralf
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| |last1=Scharf
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| |publisher=John Wiley and Sons
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| |year=2007
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| |isbn=0-471-74064-0
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| |page=19
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| |url=http://books.google.com/?id=CQNE13opFucC}}, [http://books.google.com/books?id=CQNE13opFucC&pg=PA19 Chapter 2, p. 19]</ref> These "[[Maxwell Equations]]" fully described the sources of the fields as being stationary and moving charges, and the interactions of the fields themselves. This led Maxwell to discover that electric and magnetic fields could be "self-generating" through a [[wave]] that traveled at a speed which he calculated to be the [[speed of light]]. This insight united the nascent fields of electromagnetic theory with [[optics]] and led directly to a complete description of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]].<ref>
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| {{cite book
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| |first=William |last=Duffin
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| |title=Electricity and Magnetism, 3rd Ed.
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| |publisher=McGraw-Hill
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| |pages=364–383
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| |year=1980
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| |isbn=0-07-084111-X}}</ref>
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| However, attempting to reconcile electromagnetic theory with two observations, the [[photoelectric effect]], and the nonexistence of the [[ultraviolet catastrophe]], proved troublesome. Through the work of leading theoretical physicists, a new theory of electromagnetism was developed using quantum mechanics. This final modification to electromagnetic theory ultimately led to [[quantum electrodynamics]] (or QED), which fully describes all electromagnetic phenomena as being mediated by wave-particles known as [[photon]]s. In QED, photons are the fundamental exchange particle which described all interactions relating to electromagnetism including the electromagnetic force.<ref group=Note>For a complete library on quantum mechanics see [[Quantum mechanics#References|Quantum mechanics – References]]</ref>
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| It is a common misconception to ascribe the stiffness and rigidity of [[solid state physics|solid matter]] to the repulsion of like charges under the influence of the electromagnetic force. However, these characteristics actually result from the Pauli exclusion principle.{{citation needed|date=October 2013}} Since electrons are [[fermion]]s, they cannot occupy the same [[wavefunction|quantum mechanical state]] as other electrons. When the electrons in a material are densely packed together, there are not enough lower energy quantum mechanical states for them all, so some of them must be in higher energy states. This means that it takes energy to pack them together. While this effect is manifested macroscopically as a structural force, it is technically only the result of the existence of a finite set of electron states.
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| ===Nuclear forces===
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| {{main|Nuclear force}}
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| {{see also|Strong interaction|Weak interaction}}
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| There are two "nuclear forces" which today are usually described as interactions that take place in quantum theories of particle physics. The [[strong nuclear force]]<ref name=Cutnell/>{{rp|940}} is the force responsible for the structural integrity of [[atomic nuclei]] while the [[weak nuclear force]]<ref name=Cutnell/>{{rp|951}} is responsible for the decay of certain [[nucleon]]s into [[lepton]]s and other types of [[hadron]]s.<ref name=FeynmanVol1 /><ref name=Kleppner />
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| The strong force is today understood to represent the [[interaction]]s between [[quark]]s and [[gluon]]s as detailed by the theory of [[quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD).<ref>{{cite web
| |
| |last=Stevens
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| |first=Tab
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| |title=Quantum-Chromodynamics: A Definition – Science Articles
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| |date=10/07/2003
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| |url=http://www.physicspost.com/science-article-168.html
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| |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20111016103116/http://www.physicspost.com/science-article-168.html
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| |archivedate=2011-10-16
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| |accessdate=2008-01-04}}</ref> The strong force is the [[fundamental force]] mediated by [[gluons]], acting upon quarks, [[antiparticle|antiquarks]], and the [[gluon]]s themselves. The (aptly named) strong interaction is the "strongest" of the four fundamental forces.
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| | |
| The strong force only acts ''directly'' upon elementary particles. However, a residual of the force is observed between [[hadron]]s (the best known example being the force that acts between [[nucleon]]s in atomic nuclei) as the [[nuclear force]]. Here the strong force acts indirectly, transmitted as gluons which form part of the virtual pi and rho [[meson]]s which classically transmit the nuclear force (see this topic for more). The failure of many searches for [[free quark]]s has shown that the elementary particles affected are not directly observable. This phenomenon is called [[color confinement]].
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| The weak force is due to the exchange of the heavy [[W and Z bosons]]. Its most familiar effect is [[beta decay]] (of neutrons in atomic nuclei) and the associated [[radioactivity]]. The word "weak" derives from the fact that the field strength is some 10<sup>13</sup> times less than that of the [[strong force]]. Still, it is stronger than gravity over short distances. A consistent electroweak theory has also been developed which shows that electromagnetic forces and the weak force are indistinguishable at a temperatures in excess of approximately 10<sup>15</sup> [[kelvin]]s. Such temperatures have been probed in modern [[particle accelerator]]s and show the conditions of the [[universe]] in the early moments of the [[Big Bang]].
| |
| | |
| ==Non-fundamental forces==
| |
| Some forces are consequences of the fundamental ones. In such situations, idealized models can be utilized to gain physical insight.
| |
| | |
| ===Normal force===
| |
| [[File:Incline.svg|right|thumb|''F<sub>N</sub>'' represents the [[normal force]] exerted on the object.]]
| |
| {{main|Normal force}}
| |
| The normal force is due to repulsive forces of interaction between atoms at close contact. When their electron clouds overlap, Pauli repulsion (due to [[fermion]]ic nature of [[electron]]s) follows resulting in the force which acts in a direction [[Normal (geometry)|normal]] to the surface interface between two objects.<ref name=Cutnell/>{{rp|93}} The normal force, for example, is responsible for the structural integrity of tables and floors as well as being the force that responds whenever an external force pushes on a solid object. An example of the normal force in action is the impact force on an object crashing into an immobile surface.<ref name=FeynmanVol1 /><ref name=Kleppner />
| |
| | |
| ===Friction===
| |
| {{main|Friction}}
| |
| Friction is a surface force that opposes relative motion. The frictional force is directly related to the normal force which acts to keep two solid objects separated at the point of contact. There are two broad classifications of frictional forces: [[static friction]] and [[kinetic friction]].
| |
| | |
| The static friction force (<math>F_{\mathrm{sf}}</math>) will exactly oppose forces applied to an object parallel to a surface contact up to the limit specified by the [[coefficient of static friction]] (<math>\mu_{\mathrm{sf}}</math>) multiplied by the normal force (<math>F_N</math>). In other words the magnitude of the static friction force satisfies the inequality:
| |
| :<math>0 \le F_{\mathrm{sf}} \le \mu_{\mathrm{sf}} F_\mathrm{N}</math>.
| |
| | |
| The kinetic friction force (<math>F_{\mathrm{kf}}</math>) is independent of both the forces applied and the movement of the object. Thus, the magnitude of the force equals:
| |
| :<math>F_{\mathrm{kf}} = \mu_{\mathrm{kf}} F_\mathrm{N}</math>,
| |
| | |
| where <math>\mu_{\mathrm{kf}}</math> is the [[coefficient of kinetic friction]]. For most surface interfaces, the coefficient of kinetic friction is less than the coefficient of static friction.
| |
| | |
| ===Tension===
| |
| {{main|Tension (physics)}}
| |
| Tension forces can be modeled using [[ideal string]]s which are massless, frictionless, unbreakable, and unstretchable. They can be combined with ideal [[pulley]]s which allow ideal strings to switch physical direction. Ideal strings transmit tension forces instantaneously in action-reaction pairs so that if two objects are connected by an ideal string, any force directed along the string by the first object is accompanied by a force directed along the string in the opposite direction by the second object.<ref>{{cite web
| |
| |title=Tension Force
| |
| |work=Non-Calculus Based Physics I
| |
| |url=http://www.mtsu.edu/~phys2010/Lectures/Part_2__L6_-_L11/Lecture_9/Tension_Force/tension_force.html
| |
| |accessdate=2008-01-04}}</ref> By connecting the same string multiple times to the same object through the use of a set-up that uses movable pulleys, the tension force on a load can be multiplied. For every string that acts on a load, another factor of the tension force in the string acts on the load. However, even though such machines allow for an [[mechanical advantage|increase in force]], there is a corresponding increase in the length of string that must be displaced in order to move the load. These tandem effects result ultimately in the [[conservation of energy|conservation of mechanical energy]] since the [[#Kinematic integrals|work done on the load]] is the same no matter how complicated the machine.<ref name=FeynmanVol1 /><ref name=Kleppner /><ref>{{cite web
| |
| |last=Fitzpatrick
| |
| |first=Richard
| |
| |title=Strings, pulleys, and inclines
| |
| |date=2006-02-02
| |
| |url=http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/301/lectures/node48.html
| |
| |accessdate=2008-01-04}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Elastic force===
| |
| {{main|Elasticity (physics)|Hooke's law}}
| |
| [[File:Spring-mass2.svg|upright|thumb|''F<sub>k</sub>'' is the force that responds to the load on the spring]]
| |
| An elastic force acts to return a [[Spring (device)|spring]] to its natural length. An [[ideal spring]] is taken to be massless, frictionless, unbreakable, and infinitely stretchable. Such springs exert forces that push when contracted, or pull when extended, in proportion to the [[displacement field (mechanics)|displacement]] of the spring from its equilibrium position.<ref>{{cite web |last=Nave |first=Carl Rod |title=Elasticity |work=HyperPhysics |publisher=University of Guelph |url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/permot2.html |accessdate=2013-10-28}}</ref> This linear relationship was described by [[Robert Hooke]] in 1676, for whom [[Hooke's law]] is named. If <math>\Delta x</math> is the displacement, the force exerted by an ideal spring equals:
| |
| :<math>\vec{F}=-k \Delta \vec{x}</math>
| |
| | |
| where <math>k</math> is the spring constant (or force constant), which is particular to the spring. The minus sign accounts for the tendency of the force to act in opposition to the applied load.<ref name=FeynmanVol1 /><ref name=Kleppner />
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| | |
| ===Continuum mechanics===
| |
| [[File:Stokes sphere.svg|thumb|upright|When the drag force (<math>F_d</math>) associated with air resistance becomes equal in magnitude to the force of gravity on a falling object (<math>F_g</math>), the object reaches a state of [[#Dynamic equilibrium|dynamic equilibrium]] at [[terminal velocity]].]]
| |
| {{main|Pressure|Drag (physics)|Stress (mechanics)}}
| |
| Newton's laws and Newtonian mechanics in general were first developed to describe how forces affect idealized [[point particle]]s rather than three-dimensional objects. However, in real life, matter has extended structure and forces that act on one part of an object might affect other parts of an object. For situations where lattice holding together the atoms in an object is able to flow, contract, expand, or otherwise change shape, the theories of [[continuum mechanics]] describe the way forces affect the material. For example, in extended [[fluid mechanics|fluids]], differences in [[pressure]] result in forces being directed along the pressure [[gradient]]s as follows:
| |
| :<math>\frac{\vec{F}}{V} = - \vec{\nabla} P</math>
| |
| | |
| where <math>V</math> is the volume of the object in the fluid and <math>P</math> is the [[scalar function]] that describes the pressure at all locations in space. Pressure gradients and differentials result in the [[buoyancy|buoyant force]] for fluids suspended in gravitational fields, [[wind]]s in [[atmospheric science]], and the [[lift (physics)|lift]] associated with [[aerodynamics]] and [[flight]].<ref name=FeynmanVol1 /><ref name=Kleppner />
| |
| | |
| A specific instance of such a force that is associated with [[dynamic pressure]] is fluid resistance: a body force that resists the motion of an object through a fluid due to [[viscosity]]. For so-called "[[Drag (physics)#Very low Reynolds numbers—Stokes' drag|Stokes' drag]]" the force is approximately proportional to the velocity, but opposite in direction:
| |
| :<math>\vec{F}_\mathrm{d} = - b \vec{v} \,</math>
| |
| | |
| where:
| |
| :<math>b</math> is a constant that depends on the properties of the fluid and the dimensions of the object (usually the [[Cross section (geometry)|cross-sectional area]]), and
| |
| :<math>\scriptstyle \vec{v}</math> is the velocity of the object.<ref name=FeynmanVol1 /><ref name=Kleppner />
| |
| | |
| More formally, forces in [[continuum mechanics]] are fully described by a [[Stress (mechanics)|stress]]-[[tensor]] with terms that are roughly defined as
| |
| :<math>\sigma = \frac{F}{A}</math>
| |
| | |
| where <math>A</math> is the relevant cross-sectional area for the volume for which the stress-tensor is being calculated. This formalism includes pressure terms associated with forces that act normal to the cross-sectional area (the [[matrix diagonal]]s of the tensor) as well as [[Shear stress|shear]] terms associated with forces that act [[Parallel (geometry)|parallel]] to the cross-sectional area (the off-diagonal elements). The stress tensor accounts for forces that cause all [[strain (physics)|strains]] (deformations) including also [[tensile stress]]es and [[compression (physical)|compression]]s.<ref name=uniphysics_ch2>''University Physics'', Sears, Young & Zemansky, pp.18–38</ref><ref name=Kleppner>{{harvnb|Kleppner|Kolenkow|2010}}</ref>{{rp|133-134}}<ref name=FeynmanVol2>{{harvnb|Feynman volume 2}}</ref>{{rp|38-1–38-11}}
| |
| | |
| ===Fictitious forces===
| |
| {{main|Fictitious forces}}
| |
| There are forces which are [[frame dependent]], meaning that they appear due to the adoption of non-Newtonian (that is, [[non-inertial frame|non-inertial]]) [[Frame of reference|reference frames]]. Such forces include the [[Centrifugal force (rotating reference frame)|centrifugal force]] and the [[Coriolis force]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Mallette |first=Vincent |title=Inwit Publishing, Inc. and Inwit, LLC – Writings, Links and Software Distributions – The Coriolis Force |work=Publications in Science and Mathematics, Computing and the Humanities |publisher=Inwit Publishing, Inc. |date=1982-2008 |url=http://www.algorithm.com/inwit/writings/coriolisforce.html |accessdate=2008-01-04}}</ref> These forces are considered fictitious because they do not exist in frames of reference that are not accelerating.<ref name=FeynmanVol1 /><ref name=Kleppner />
| |
| | |
| In [[general relativity]], [[gravity]] becomes a fictitious force that arises in situations where spacetime deviates from a flat geometry. As an extension, [[Kaluza-Klein]] theory and [[string theory]] ascribe electromagnetism and the other [[Fundamental interaction|fundamental forces]] respectively to the curvature of differently scaled dimensions, which would ultimately imply that all forces are fictitious.
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| | |
| ==Rotations and torque==
| |
| [[File:Torque animation.gif|frame|right|Relationship between force (F), torque (τ), and [[angular momentum|momentum]] vectors (p and L) in a rotating system.]]
| |
| {{main|Torque}}
| |
| Forces that cause extended objects to rotate are associated with [[torque]]s. Mathematically, the torque of a force <math>\scriptstyle \vec{F}</math> is defined relative to an arbitrary reference point as the [[cross-product]]:
| |
| :<math>\vec{\tau} = \vec{r} \times \vec{F}</math>
| |
| | |
| where
| |
| :<math>\scriptstyle \vec{r}</math> is the [[position vector]] of the force application point relative to the reference point.
| |
| | |
| Torque is the rotation equivalent of force in the same way that [[angle]] is the rotational equivalent for [[position (vector)|position]], [[angular velocity]] for [[velocity]], and [[angular momentum]] for [[momentum]]. As a consequence of Newton's First Law of Motion, there exists [[rotational inertia]] that ensures that all bodies maintain their angular momentum unless acted upon by an unbalanced torque. Likewise, Newton's Second Law of Motion can be used to derive an analogous equation for the instantaneous [[angular acceleration]] of the rigid body:
| |
| :<math>\vec{\tau} = I\vec{\alpha}</math>
| |
| | |
| where
| |
| :<math>I</math> is the [[moment of inertia]] of the body
| |
| :<math>\scriptstyle \vec{\alpha}</math> is the angular acceleration of the body.
| |
| | |
| This provides a definition for the moment of inertia which is the rotational equivalent for mass. In more advanced treatments of mechanics, where the rotation over a time interval is described, the moment of inertia must be substituted by the [[Moment of inertia tensor|tensor]] that, when properly analyzed, fully determines the characteristics of rotations including [[precession]] and [[nutation]].
| |
| | |
| Equivalently, the differential form of Newton's Second Law provides an alternative definition of torque:
| |
| :<math>\vec{\tau} = \frac{\mathrm{d}\vec{L}}{\mathrm{dt}},</math><ref>{{cite web |last=Nave |first=Carl Rod |title=Newton's 2nd Law: Rotation |work=HyperPhysics |publisher=University of Guelph |url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/HBASE/n2r.html |accessdate=2013-10-28}}</ref> where <math>\scriptstyle \vec{L}</math> is the angular momentum of the particle.
| |
| | |
| Newton's Third Law of Motion requires that all objects exerting torques themselves experience equal and opposite torques,<ref>{{cite web |last=Fitzpatrick |first=Richard |title=Newton's third law of motion |date=2007-01-07 |url=http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/336k/lectures/node26.html |accessdate=2008-01-04}}</ref> and therefore also directly implies the [[conservation of angular momentum]] for closed systems that experience rotations and [[revolution]]s through the action of internal torques.
| |
| | |
| ===Centripetal force===
| |
| {{main|Centripetal force}}
| |
| For an object accelerating in circular motion, the unbalanced force acting on the object equals:<ref>{{cite web |last=Nave |first=Carl Rod |title=Centripetal Force |work=HyperPhysics |publisher=University of Guelph |url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/cf.html |accessdate=2013-10-28}}</ref>
| |
| :<math>\vec{F} = - \frac{mv^2 \hat{r}}{r}</math>
| |
| | |
| where <math>m</math> is the mass of the object, <math>v</math> is the velocity of the object and <math>r</math> is the distance to the center of the circular path and <math>\scriptstyle \hat{r}</math> is the [[unit vector]] pointing in the radial direction outwards from the center. This means that the unbalanced centripetal force felt by any object is always directed toward the center of the curving path. Such forces act perpendicular to the velocity vector associated with the motion of an object, and therefore do not change the [[speed]] of the object (magnitude of the velocity), but only the direction of the velocity vector. The unbalanced force that accelerates an object can be resolved into a component that is perpendicular to the path, and one that is tangential to the path. This yields both the tangential force which accelerates the object by either slowing it down or speeding it up and the radial (centripetal) force which changes its direction.<ref name=FeynmanVol1 /><ref name=Kleppner />
| |
| | |
| ==Kinematic integrals==
| |
| {{main|Impulse (physics)|l1=Impulse|Mechanical work|Power (physics)}}
| |
| Forces can be used to define a number of physical concepts by [[integration (calculus)|integrating]] with respect to [[kinematics|kinematic variables]]. For example, integrating with respect to time gives the definition of [[Impulse (physics)|impulse]]:<ref>{{Cite book
| |
| |title=Engineering Mechanics, 12th edition
| |
| |first1=Russell C.
| |
| |last1=Hibbeler
| |
| |publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall
| |
| |year=2010
| |
| |isbn=0-13-607791-9
| |
| |page=222
| |
| |postscript=<!--None-->}}</ref>
| |
| :<math>\vec{I}=\int_{t_1}^{t_2}{\vec{F} \mathrm{d}t}</math>
| |
| | |
| which, by Newton's Second Law, must be equivalent to the change in momentum (yielding the [[Impulse momentum theorem]]).
| |
| | |
| Similarly, integrating with respect to position gives a definition for the [[work (physics)|work done]] by a force:<ref name=FeynmanVol1/>{{rp|13-3}}
| |
| :<math>W=\int_{\vec{x}_1}^{\vec{x}_2}{\vec{F} \cdot{\mathrm{d}\vec{x}}}</math>
| |
| | |
| which is equivalent to changes in [[kinetic energy]] (yielding the [[work energy theorem]]).<ref name=FeynmanVol1/>{{rp|13-3}}
| |
| | |
| [[Power (physics)|Power]] ''P'' is the rate of change d''W''/d''t'' of the work ''W'', as the [[trajectory]] is extended by a position change <math>\scriptstyle {d}\vec{x}</math> in a time interval d''t'':<ref name=FeynmanVol1/>{{rp|13-2}}
| |
| :<math>
| |
| \text{d}W\, =\, \frac{\text{d}W}{\text{d}\vec{x}}\, \cdot\, \text{d}\vec{x}\, =\, \vec{F}\, \cdot\, \text{d}\vec{x},
| |
| \qquad \text{ so } \quad
| |
| P\, =\, \frac{\text{d}W}{\text{d}t}\, =\, \frac{\text{d}W}{\text{d}\vec{x}}\, \cdot\, \frac{\text{d}\vec{x}}{\text{d}t}\, =\, \vec{F}\, \cdot\, \vec{v},
| |
| </math>
| |
| | |
| with <math>\scriptstyle{\vec{v}\text{ }=\text{ d}\vec{x}/\text{d}t}</math> the [[velocity]].
| |
| | |
| ==Potential energy==
| |
| {{main|Potential energy}}
| |
| Instead of a force, often the mathematically related concept of a [[potential energy]] field can be used for convenience. For instance, the gravitational force acting upon an object can be seen as the action of the [[gravitational field]] that is present at the object's location. Restating mathematically the definition of energy (via the definition of [[Mechanical work|work]]), a potential [[scalar field]] <math>\scriptstyle{U(\vec{r})}</math> is defined as that field whose [[gradient]] is equal and opposite to the force produced at every point:
| |
| :<math>\vec{F}=-\vec{\nabla} U.</math>
| |
| | |
| Forces can be classified as [[Conservative force|conservative]] or nonconservative. Conservative forces are equivalent to the gradient of a [[potential]] while nonconservative forces are not.<ref name=FeynmanVol1 /><ref name=Kleppner />
| |
| | |
| ===Conservative forces===
| |
| {{main|Conservative force}}
| |
| A conservative force that acts on a [[closed system]] has an associated mechanical work that allows energy to convert only between [[kinetic energy|kinetic]] or [[potential energy|potential]] forms. This means that for a closed system, the net [[mechanical energy]] is conserved whenever a conservative force acts on the system. The force, therefore, is related directly to the difference in potential energy between two different locations in space,<ref>{{cite web
| |
| |last=Singh
| |
| |first=Sunil Kumar
| |
| |title=Conservative force
| |
| |work=Connexions
| |
| |date=2007-08-25
| |
| |url=http://cnx.org/content/m14104/latest/
| |
| |accessdate=2008-01-04}}</ref> and can be considered to be an artifact of the potential field in the same way that the direction and amount of a flow of water can be considered to be an artifact of the [[contour map]] of the elevation of an area.<ref name=FeynmanVol1 /><ref name=Kleppner />
| |
| | |
| Conservative forces include [[gravity]], the [[Electromagnetism|electromagnetic]] force, and the [[Hooke's law|spring]] force. Each of these forces has models which are dependent on a position often given as a [[radius|radial vector]] <math>\scriptstyle \vec{r}</math> emanating from [[spherical symmetry|spherically symmetric]] potentials.<ref>{{cite web
| |
| |last=Davis
| |
| |first=Doug
| |
| |title=Conservation of Energy
| |
| |work=General physics
| |
| |url=http://www.ux1.eiu.edu/~cfadd/1350/08PotEng/ConsF.html
| |
| |accessdate=2008-01-04}}</ref> Examples of this follow:
| |
| | |
| For gravity:
| |
| :<math>\vec{F} = - \frac{G m_1 m_2 \vec{r}}{r^3}</math>
| |
| | |
| where <math>G</math> is the [[gravitational constant]], and <math>m_n</math> is the mass of object ''n''.
| |
| | |
| For electrostatic forces:
| |
| :<math>\vec{F} = \frac{q_{1} q_{2} \vec{r}}{4 \pi \epsilon_{0} r^3}</math>
| |
| | |
| where <math>\epsilon_{0}</math> is [[Permittivity|electric permittivity of free space]], and <math>q_n</math> is the [[electric charge]] of object ''n''.
| |
| | |
| For spring forces:
| |
| :<math>\vec{F} = - k \vec{r}</math>
| |
| | |
| where <math>k</math> is the [[spring constant]].<ref name=FeynmanVol1 /><ref name=Kleppner />
| |
| | |
| ===Nonconservative forces===
| |
| For certain physical scenarios, it is impossible to model forces as being due to gradient of potentials. This is often due to macrophysical considerations which yield forces as arising from a macroscopic statistical average of [[Microstate (statistical mechanics)|microstates]]. For example, friction is caused by the gradients of numerous electrostatic potentials between the [[atom]]s, but manifests as a force model which is independent of any macroscale position vector. Nonconservative forces other than friction include other [[contact force]]s, [[Tension (physics)|tension]], [[Physical compression|compression]], and [[drag (physics)|drag]]. However, for any sufficiently detailed description, all these forces are the results of conservative ones since each of these macroscopic forces are the net results of the gradients of microscopic potentials.<ref name=FeynmanVol1 /><ref name=Kleppner />
| |
| | |
| The connection between macroscopic nonconservative forces and microscopic conservative forces is described by detailed treatment with [[statistical mechanics]]. In macroscopic closed systems, nonconservative forces act to change the [[internal energy|internal energies]] of the system, and are often associated with the transfer of [[heat]]. According to the [[Second law of thermodynamics]], nonconservative forces necessarily result in energy transformations within closed systems from ordered to more random conditions as [[entropy]] increases.<ref name=FeynmanVol1 /><ref name=Kleppner />
| |
| | |
| ==Units of measurement==
| |
| The [[SI]] unit of force is the [[Newton (unit)|newton]] (symbol N), which is the force required to accelerate a one kilogram mass at a rate of one meter per second squared, or {{math|kg·m·s<sup>−2</sup>}}.<ref name= metric_units>{{cite book |first=Cornelius |last=Wandmacher |first2=Arnold |last2=Johnson |title=Metric Units in Engineering |page=15 |year=1995 |publisher=ASCE Publications |isbn=0-7844-0070-9}}</ref> The corresponding [[CGS]] unit is the [[dyne]], the force required to accelerate a one gram mass by one centimeter per second squared, or {{math|g·cm·s<sup>−2</sup>}}. A newton is thus equal to 100,000 dynes.
| |
| | |
| The gravitational [[foot-pound-second]] [[English unit]] of force is the [[pound-force]] (lbf), defined as the force exerted by gravity on a [[pound-mass]] in the [[Standard gravity|standard gravitational]] field of {{math|9.80665 m·s<sup>−2</sup>}}.<ref name=metric_units/> The pound-force provides an alternative unit of mass: one [[slug (mass)|slug]] is the mass that will accelerate by one foot per second squared when acted on by one pound-force.<ref name=metric_units/>
| |
| | |
| An alternative unit of force in a different foot-pound-second system, the absolute fps system, is the [[poundal]], defined as the force required to accelerate a one pound mass at a rate of one foot per second squared.<ref name=metric_units/> The units of [[slug (mass)|slug]] and [[poundal]] are designed to avoid a constant of proportionality in [[Newton's Second Law]].
| |
| | |
| The pound-force has a metric counterpart, less commonly used than the newton: the [[kilogram-force]] (kgf) (sometimes kilopond), is the force exerted by standard gravity on one kilogram of mass.<ref name= metric_units/> The kilogram-force leads to an alternate, but rarely used unit of mass: the [[metric slug]] (sometimes mug or hyl) is that mass which accelerates at {{math|1 m·s<sup>−2</sup>}} when subjected to a force of 1 kgf. The kilogram-force is not a part of the modern SI system, and is generally deprecated; however it still sees use for some purposes as expressing jet thrust, bicycle spoke tension, torque wrench settings and engine output torque. Other arcane units of force include the [[sthène]] which is equivalent to 1000 N and the [[kip (unit)|kip]] which is equivalent to 1000 lbf.
| |
| | |
| {{units of force|center=yes|cat=no}}
| |
| | |
| ==See also==
| |
| {{portal|Physics}}
| |
| * [[Strain gauge]]
| |
| * [[Ton-force]]
| |
| | |
| ==Notes==
| |
| {{Reflist|group=Note}}
| |
| | |
| ==References==
| |
| {{Reflist|35em|refs=
| |
| <ref name=uniphysics_ch4>
| |
| ''University Physics'', Sears, Young & Zemansky, pp59–82
| |
| </ref>
| |
| }}
| |
| | |
| ==Further reading==
| |
| {{Refbegin}}
| |
| *{{cite book |last=Corben |first=H.C. |coauthors=Philip Stehle|title=Classical Mechanics|location=New York |publisher=Dover publications |year=1994 |pages=28–31 |isbn=0-486-68063-0}}
| |
| *{{cite book |last=Cutnell |first=John D. |last2=Johnson |first2=Kenneth W. |title=Physics, Sixth Edition |publisher=John Wiley & Sons Inc. |year=2003 |location=Hoboken, NJ |isbn=0471151831 |ref=harv}}
| |
| *{{cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard P.|last2=Leighton |first3=Matthew |last3=Sands |title=The Feynman lectures on physics. Vol. I: Mainly mechanics, radiation and heat|year=2010|publisher=BasicBooks|location=New York|isbn=978-0465024933|edition=New millennium |ref={{harvid|Feynman volume 1}} }}
| |
| *{{cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard P.|first2=Robert B. |last2=Leighton |first3=Matthew |last3=Sands |title=The Feynman lectures on physics. Vol. II: Mainly electromagnetism and matter|year=2010|publisher=BasicBooks|location=New York|isbn=978-0465024940|edition=New millennium|ref={{harvid|Feynman volume 2}} }}
| |
| *{{cite book |last=Halliday |first=David |first2=Robert |last2=Resnick |first3=Kenneth S. |last3=Krane |title=Physics v. 1 |location=New York |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2001 |isbn=0-471-32057-9 |ref=harv}}
| |
| *{{cite book|last=Kleppner|first=Daniel|first2=Robert J. |last2=Kolenkow|title=An introduction to mechanics|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=0521198216|edition=3. print |ref=harv}}
| |
| *{{cite encyclopedia |last=Parker |first=Sybil |title=force |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Physics |page=107, |location=Ohio |publisher=McGraw-Hill |year=1993 |isbn=0-07-051400-3}}
| |
| *{{cite book |last=Sears F., Zemansky M. & Young H. |title=University Physics |publisher=Addison-Wesley |location=Reading, MA |year=1982 |isbn=0-201-07199-1}}
| |
| *{{cite book |last=Serway |first=Raymond A. |title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers |location=Philadelphia |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=0-534-40842-7}}
| |
| *{{cite book |last=Tipler |first=Paul |title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics |edition=5th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |year=2004 |isbn=0-7167-0809-4}}
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| *{{cite book |last=Verma |first=H.C. |title=Concepts of Physics Vol 1. |edition=2004 Reprint |publisher=Bharti Bhavan |year=2004 |isbn=8177091875}}
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| {{Refend}}
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| ==External links==
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| {{Commons category|Forces}}
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| {{wiktionary}}
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| *[http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Physics/8-01Physics-IFall1999/VideoLectures/detail/Video-Segment-Index-for-L-6.htm Video lecture on Newton's three laws] by [[Walter Lewin]] from [[MIT OpenCourseWare]]
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| *[http://phy.hk/wiki/englishhtm/Vector.htm A Java simulation on vector addition of forces]
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| *[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DkWKvMtdLYU Force demonstrated as any influence on an object that changes the object's shape or motion]
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| {{good article}}
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| [[Category:Natural philosophy]]
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| [[Category:Classical mechanics]]
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| [[Category:Concepts in physics]]
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| [[Category:Force| ]]
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| [[Category:Physical quantities]]
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| {{Link GA|de}}
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| {{Link FA|sq}}
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