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| {{Distinguish|Algebraic geometry}}
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| {{other uses}}
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| A '''geometric algebra''' (GA) is the [[Clifford algebra]] of a [[vector space]] over the field of [[real numbers]] endowed with a [[quadratic form]]. The term is also sometimes used as a collective term for the approach to classical, computational and relativistic [[geometry]] that applies these algebras. The distinguishing multiplication operation that defines the GA as a [[unital ring]] is the '''geometric product'''. Taking the geometric product among vectors can yield [[bivector]]s, trivectors, or general ''n''-vectors. The addition operation combines these into general [[multivector]]s, which are the elements of the ring. This includes, among other possibilities, a well-defined sum of a [[scalar (mathematics)|scalar]] and a [[Euclidean vector|vector]], an operation that is impossible by traditional [[vector addition]]. This operation may seem peculiar, but in geometric algebra it is seen as no more unusual than the representation of a [[complex number]] by the sum of its real and imaginary components.
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| Geometric algebra is distinguished from Clifford algebra in general by its restriction to real numbers and its emphasis on its geometric interpretation and physical applications. Specific examples of geometric algebras applied in physics include the [[algebra of physical space]], the [[spacetime algebra]], and the [[#Conformal geometric algebra (CGA)|conformal geometric algebra]]. [[Geometric calculus]], an extension of GA that includes [[differentiation (mathematics)|differentiation]] and [[integral|integration]] can be further shown to incorporate other theories such as [[complex analysis]], [[differential geometry]], and [[differential form]]s. Because of such a broad reach with a comparatively simple algebraic structure, GA has been advocated, most notably by [[David Hestenes]]<ref>{{Citation
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| | last = Hestenes
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| | first = David
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| | author-link = David Hestenes
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| | title = Oersted Medal Lecture 2002: Reforming the Mathematical Language of Physics
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| | journal = Am. J. Phys.
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| | volume = 71
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| | issue = 2
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| | pages = 104–121
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| |date=February 2003
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| | url = http://geocalc.clas.asu.edu/pdf/OerstedMedalLecture.pdf
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| |bibcode = 2003AmJPh..71..104H |doi = 10.1119/1.1522700 }}</ref> and [[Chris J. L. Doran|Chris Doran]],<ref>{{cite journal
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| | last = Doran
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| | first = Chris
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| | authorlink = Chris J. L. Doran
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| | title = Geometric Algebra and its Application to Mathematical Physics
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| | journal = PhD thesis
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| | publisher = University of Cambridge
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| | year = 1994
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| | url = http://www.mrao.cam.ac.uk/~clifford/publications/abstracts/chris_thesis.html}}</ref> as the preferred mathematical framework for [[physics]]. Proponents argue that it provides compact and intuitive descriptions in many areas including [[classical mechanics|classical]] and [[quantum mechanics]], [[electromagnetic theory]] and [[theory of relativity|relativity]].{{sfn|Lasenby|Lasenby|Doran|year=2000}} Others claim that in some cases the geometric algebra approach is able to sidestep a "proliferation of manifolds"<ref>McRobie, F. A.; Lasenby, J. (1999) ''Simo-Vu Quoc rods using Clifford algebra.'' Internat. J. Numer. Methods Engrg. Vol 45, #4, p. 377−398</ref> that arises during the standard application of [[differential geometry]].
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| The geometric product was first briefly mentioned by [[Hermann Grassmann]], who was chiefly interested in developing the closely related but more limited [[exterior algebra]]. In 1878, [[William Kingdom Clifford]] greatly expanded on Grassmann's work to form what are now usually called Clifford algebras in his honor (although Clifford himself chose to call them "geometric algebras"). For several decades, geometric algebras went somewhat ignored, greatly eclipsed by the [[vector calculus]] then newly developed to describe electromagnetism. The term "geometric algebra" was repopularized by Hestenes in the 1960s, who recognized its importance to relativistic physics.{{sfn|Hestenes|1966}} Since then, geometric algebra (GA) has also found application in [[computer graphics]] and [[robotics]].
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| ==Definition and notation==
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| Given a finite dimensional real [[quadratic space]] {{nowrap|1=''V'' = '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup>}} with quadratic form {{nowrap|1=''Q'' : ''V'' → '''R'''}}, the '''geometric algebra''' for this quadratic space is the [[Clifford algebra]] ''C''ℓ(''V'',''Q'').
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| The algebra product is called the ''geometric product''. It is standard to denote the geometric product by juxtaposition. The above definition of the geometric algebra is abstract, so we summarize the properties of the geometric product by the following set of axioms. If ''a'', ''b'', and ''c'' are vectors, then the geometric product has the following properties:
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| :<math>a(bc)=(ab)c</math> ([[associativity]])
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| :<math>a(b+c)=ab+ac</math> ([[distributivity]] over addition)
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| :<math>a^2 \in \mathbb R</math>
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| Note that in the final property above, the square is not necessarily positive. An important property of the geometric product is the existence of elements with multiplicative inverse, also known as [[unit (ring theory)|units]]. If {{nowrap|1=''a''<sup>2</sup> ≠ 0}} for some vector ''a'', then ''a''<sup>−1</sup> exists and is equal to {{nowrap|1=''a''/(''a''<sup>2</sup>)}}. Not all the elements of the algebra are necessarily units. For example, if ''u'' is a vector in ''V'' such that {{nowrap|1=''u<sup>2</sup>'' = 1}}, the elements {{nowrap|1=1 ± ''u''}} have no inverse since they are [[zero divisor]]s: {{nowrap|1=(1 − ''u'')(1 + ''u'') = 1 − ''uu'' = 1 − 1 = 0}}. There may also exist nontrivial [[idempotent element]]s such as {{nowrap|(1 + ''u'')/2}}.
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| ===Inner and outer product of vectors===
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| [[File:GA parallel and perpendicular vectors.svg|200px|right|thumb|Given two vectors '''a''' and '''b''', if the geometric product '''ab''' is<ref>[http://geocalc.clas.asu.edu/html/IntroPrimerGeometricAlgebra.html]</ref> anticommutative; they are perpendicular (top) because '''a'''∧'''b''' = −'''b'''∧'''a''' and '''a · b''' = 0, if it's commutative; they are parallel (bottom) because '''a'''∧'''b''' = '''0''' and '''a · b''' = '''b · a'''.]]
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| [[File:N-vector.svg|right|thumb|126px|Geometric interpretation for the '''outer product''' of ''n'' [[vector (geometry)|vector]]s ('''u''', '''v''', '''w''') to obtain an ''n''-vector ([[parallelotope]] elements), where ''n'' = [[graded algebra|grade]],<ref>{{cite book |author=R. Penrose| title=[[The Road to Reality]]| publisher= Vintage books| year=2007 | isbn=0-679-77631-1}}</ref> for ''n'' = 1, 2, 3. The "circulations" show [[Orientation (vector space)|orientation]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Gravitation|author=J.A. Wheeler, C. Misner, K.S. Thorne|publisher=W.H. Freeman & Co|year=1973|page=83|isbn=0-7167-0344-0}}</ref>]]
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| From the axioms above, we find that, for vectors ''a'' and ''b'', we may write the geometric product of any two vectors ''a'' and ''b'' as the sum of a symmetric product and an antisymmetric product:
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| :<math>ab=\frac{1}{2}(ab+ba)+\frac{1}{2}(ab-ba)</math>
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| Thus we can define the ''inner product'' of vectors to be the symmetric product
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| :<math>a \cdot b := \frac{1}{2}(ab + ba) = \frac{1}{2}((a+b)^2 - a^2 - b^2) ,</math>
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| which is a real number because it is a sum of squares. The remaining antisymmetric part is the ''outer product'' (the exterior product of the contained [[exterior algebra]]):
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| :<math>a \wedge b := \frac{1}{2}(ab - ba) = -(b \wedge a)</math>
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| The inner and outer products are associated with familiar concepts from standard vector algebra. Pictorially, ''a'' and ''b'' are [[parallel (geometry)|parallel]] if all their geometric product is equal to their inner product whereas ''a'' and ''b'' are [[perpendicular]] if their geometric product is equal to their outer product. In a geometric algebra for which the square of any nonzero vector is positive, the inner product of two vectors can be identified with the [[dot product]] of standard vector algebra. The outer product of two vectors can be identified with the [[signed area]] enclosed by a [[parallelogram]] the sides of which are the vectors. The [[cross product]] of two vectors in 3 dimensions with positive-definite quadratic form is closely related to their outer product.
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| Most instances of geometric algebras of interest have a nondegenerate quadratic form. If the quadratic form is fully [[nondegenerate quadratic form|degenerate]], the inner product of any two vectors is always zero, and the geometric algebra is then simply an exterior algebra. Unless otherwise stated, this article will treat only nondegenerate geometric algebras.
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| The outer product is naturally extended as a completely antisymmetric, associative operator between any number of vectors
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| :<math>a_1\wedge a_2\wedge\dots\wedge a_r = \frac{1}{r!}\sum_{\sigma\in\mathfrak{S}_r} \operatorname{sgn}(\sigma) a_{\sigma(1)}a_{\sigma(1)} \dots a_{\sigma(r)},</math>
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| where the sum is over all permutations of the indices, with <math>\operatorname{sgn}(\sigma)</math> the [[parity of a permutation|sign of the permutation]].
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| ===Blades, grading, and canonical basis===
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| [[File:GA basis of 3d multivector.svg|301px|thumb|Canonical ''n''-vector basis; unit scalar 1 (represented by a black number line), unit vectors, unit bivectors, and a unit trivector, all in 3d.]]
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| A multivector that is the outer product of ''r'' independent vectors (<math>r \le n</math>) is called a ''blade'', and the blade is said to be a multivector of grade ''r''. From the axioms, with closure, every multivector of the geometric algebra is a sum of blades.
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| Consider a set of ''r'' independent vectors <math>\{a_1,...,a_r\}</math> spanning an ''r''-dimensional subspace of the vector space. With these, we can define a real [[symmetric matrix]]
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| :<math>[\mathbf{A}]_{ij}=a_i\cdot a_j</math>
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| By the [[spectral theorem]], '''A''' can be diagonalized to [[diagonal matrix]] '''D''' by an [[orthogonal matrix]] '''O''' via
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| :<math>\sum_{k,l}[\mathbf{O}]_{ik}[\mathbf{A}]_{kl}[\mathbf{O}^{\mathrm{T}}]_{lj}=\sum_{k,l}[\mathbf{O}]_{ik}[\mathbf{O}]_{jl}[\mathbf{A}]_{kl}=[\mathbf{D}]_{ij}</math>
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| Define a new set of vectors <math>\{e_1,...,e_r\}</math>, known as orthogonal basis vectors, to be those transformed by the orthogonal matrix:
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| :<math>e_i=\sum_j[\mathbf{O}]_{ij}a_j</math>
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| Since orthogonal transformations preserve inner products, it follows that <math>e_i\cdot e_j=[\mathbf{D}]_{ij}</math> and thus the <math>\{e_1,...,e_r\}</math> are perpendicular. In other words the geometric product of two distinct vectors <math>e_i \ne e_j</math> is completely specified by their outer product, or more generally
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| :<math>\begin{align}e_1e_2\cdots e_r &= e_1 \wedge e_2 \wedge \cdots \wedge e_r \\
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| &= \left(\sum_j [\mathbf{O}]_{1j}a_j\right) \wedge \left(\sum_j [\mathbf{O}]_{2j}a_j\right) \wedge \cdots \wedge \left(\sum_j [\mathbf{O}]_{rj}a_j\right) \\
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| &= \det [\mathbf{O}] a_1 \wedge a_2 \wedge \cdots \wedge a_r \end{align}</math>
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| Therefore every blade of grade ''r'' can be written as a geometric product of ''r'' vectors. More generally, if a degenerate geometric algebra is allowed, then the orthogonal matrix is replaced by a [[block matrix]] that is orthogonal in the nondegenerate block, and the diagonal matrix has zero-valued entries along the degenerate dimensions. If the new vectors of the nondegenerate subspace are [[unit vector|normalized]] according to
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| :<math>\hat{e}_i=\frac{1}{\sqrt{|e_i \cdot e_i|}}e_i,</math>
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| then these normalized vectors must square to +1 or −1. By [[Sylvester's law of inertia]], the total number of +1's and the total number of −1's along the diagonal matrix is invariant. By extension, the total number ''p'' of orthonormal basis vectors that square to +1 and the total number ''q'' of orthonormal basis vectors that square to −1 is invariant. (If the degenerate case is allowed, then the total number of basis vectors that square to zero is also invariant.) We denote this algebra <math>\mathcal{G}(p,q)</math>. For example, <math>\mathcal G(3,0)</math> models 3D [[Euclidean space]], <math>\mathcal G(1,3)</math> relativistic [[spacetime]] and <math>\mathcal G(4,1)</math> a 3D [[conformal geometric algebra]].
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| The set of all possible products of ''n'' orthogonal basis vectors with indices in increasing order, including 1 as the empty product forms a basis for the entire geometric algebra (an analogue of the [[Poincaré–Birkhoff–Witt theorem|PBW theorem]]). For example, the following is a basis for the geometric algebra <math>\mathcal{G}(3,0)</math>:
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| :<math>\{1,e_1,e_2,e_3,e_1e_2,e_1e_3,e_2e_3,e_1e_2e_3\}\,</math>
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| A basis formed this way is called a '''canonical basis''' for the geometric algebra, and any other orthogonal basis for ''V'' will produce another canonical basis. Each canonical basis consists of 2<sup>''n''</sup> elements. Every multivector of the geometric algebra can be expressed as a linear combination of the canonical basis elements. If the canonical basis elements are {{nowrap|1={''B''<sub>''i''</sub> {{!}} ''i''∈''S''} }} with ''S'' being an index set, then the geometric product of any two multivectors is
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| :<math>(\Sigma_i \alpha_i B_i)(\Sigma_j \beta_j B_j)=\Sigma_{i,j} \alpha_i\beta_j B_i B_j\,</math>.
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| ===Grade projection===
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| Using a canonical basis, a [[graded vector space]] structure can be established. Elements of the geometric algebra that are simply scalar multiples of 1 are grade-0 blades and are called ''scalars''. Nonzero multivectors that are in the span of <math>\{e_1,\cdots,e_n\}</math> are grade-1 blades and are the ordinary vectors. Multivectors in the span of <math>\{e_ie_j\mid 1\leq i<j\leq n\}</math> are grade-2 blades and are the bivectors. This terminology continues through to the last grade of ''n''-vectors. Alternatively, grade-''n'' blades are called [[pseudoscalar]]s, grade-''n''−1 blades pseudovectors, etc. Many of the elements of the algebra are not graded by this scheme since they are sums of elements of differing grade. Such elements are said to be of ''mixed grade''. The grading of multivectors is independent of the orthogonal basis chosen originally.
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| A multivector <math>A</math> may be decomposed with the '''grade-projection operator''' <math>\langle A \rangle _r</math> which outputs the grade-''r'' portion of ''A''. As a result:
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| :<math> A = \sum_{r=0}^{n} \langle A \rangle _r </math>
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| As an example, the geometric product of two vectors <math> a b = a \cdot b + a \wedge b = \langle a b \rangle_0 + \langle a b \rangle_2</math> since <math>\langle a b \rangle_0=a\cdot b\,</math> and <math>\langle a b \rangle_2 = a\wedge b\,</math> and <math>\langle a b \rangle_i=0\,</math> for ''i'' other than 0 and 2.
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| The decomposition of a multivector <math>A</math> may also be split into those components that are even and those that are odd:
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| :<math> A^+ = \langle A \rangle _0 + \langle A \rangle _2 + \langle A \rangle _4 + \cdots </math>
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| :<math> A^- = \langle A \rangle _1 + \langle A \rangle _3 + \langle A \rangle _5 + \cdots </math>
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| This makes the algebra a '''Z'''<sub>2</sub>-[[graded algebra]] or [[superalgebra]] with the geometric product. Since the geometric product of two even multivectors is an even multivector, they define an ''[[superalgebra#Even subalgebra|even subalgebra]]''. The even subalgebra of an ''n''-dimensional geometric algebra is [[algebra homomorphism|isomorphic]] to a full geometric algebra of (''n''−1) dimensions. Examples include <math>\mathcal G^+(2,0) \cong \mathcal G(0,1)</math> and <math>\mathcal G^+(1,3) \cong \mathcal G(3,0)</math>.
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| ===Representation of subspaces===
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| Geometric algebra represents subspaces of ''V'' as multivectors, and so they coexist in the same algebra with vectors from ''V''. A ''k'' dimensional subspace ''W'' of ''V'' is represented by taking an orthogonal basis <math>\{b_1,b_2,\cdots b_k\}</math> and using the geometric product to form the [[blade (geometry)|blade]] {{nowrap|1=''D'' = ''b''<sub>1</sub>''b''<sub>2</sub>⋅⋅⋅''b''<sub>''k''</sub>}}. There are multiple blades representing ''W''; all those representing ''W'' are scalar multiples of ''D''. These blades can be separated into two sets: positive multiples of ''D'' and negative multiples of ''D''. The positive multiples of ''D'' are said to have ''the same [[orientation (vector space)|orientation]]'' as ''D'', and the negative multiples the ''opposite orientation''.
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| Blades are important since geometric operations such as projections, rotations and reflections depend on the factorability via the outer product that (the restricted class of) ''n''-blades provide but that (the generalized class of) grade-''n'' multivectors do not when ''n'' ≥ 4.
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| ===Unit pseudoscalars===
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| Unit pseudoscalars are blades that play important roles in GA. A '''unit pseudoscalar''' for a non-degenerate subspace ''W'' of ''V'' is a blade that is the product of the members of an orthonormal basis for ''W''. It can be shown that if {{math|''I''}} and {{math|''I''′}} are both unit pseudoscalars for ''W'', then {{math|1=''I'' = ±''I''′}} and {{math|1=''I''<sup>2</sup> = ±1}}.
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| Suppose the geometric algebra <math>\mathcal{G}(n,0)</math> with the familiar positive definite inner product on '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup> is formed. Given a plane (2-dimensional subspace) of '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup>, one can find an orthonormal basis {''b''<sub>1</sub>,''b''<sub>2</sub>} spanning the plane, and thus find a unit pseudoscalar {{nowrap|1={{math|''I''}} = ''b''<sub>1</sub>''b''<sub>2</sub>}} representing this plane. The geometric product of any two vectors in the span of ''b''<sub>1</sub> and ''b''<sub>2</sub> lies in <math>\{\alpha_0+\alpha_1 I\mid \alpha_i\in\mathbb{R} \}</math>, that is, it is the sum of a 0-vector and a 2-vector.
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| By the properties of the geometric product, {{nowrap|1={{math|''I''}} <sup>2</sup> = ''b''<sub>1</sub>''b''<sub>2</sub>''b''<sub>1</sub>''b''<sub>2</sub> = −''b''<sub>1</sub>''b''<sub>2</sub>''b''<sub>2</sub>''b''<sub>1</sub> = −1}}. The resemblance to the [[imaginary unit]] is not accidental: the subspace <math>\{\alpha_0+\alpha_1 I\mid \alpha_i\in\mathbb{R} \}</math> is '''R'''-algebra isomorphic to the [[complex number]]s. In this way, a copy of the complex numbers is embedded in the geometric algebra for each 2-dimensional subspace of ''V'' on which the quadratic form is definite.
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| It is sometimes possible to identify the presence of an imaginary unit in a physical equation. Such units arise from one of the many quantities in the real algebra that square to −1, and these have geometric significance because of the properties of the algebra and the interaction of its various subspaces.
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| In <math>\mathcal{G}(3,0)</math>, an exceptional case occurs. Given a canonical basis built from orthonormal ''e''<sub>''i''</sub>'s from ''V'', the set of ''all'' 2-vectors is generated by
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| :<math>\{e_3e_2,e_1e_3,e_2e_1\}\,</math>.
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| Labelling these ''i'', ''j'' and ''k'' (momentarily deviating from our uppercase convention), the subspace generated by 0-vectors and 2-vectors is exactly <math>\{\alpha_0+i\alpha_1+j\alpha_2+k\alpha_3\mid \alpha_i\in\mathbb{R}\}</math>. This set is seen to be a subalgebra, and furthermore is '''R'''-algebra isomorphic to the [[quaternion]]s, another important algebraic system.
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| ===Dual basis===
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| Let <math>\{e_i\}</math> be a basis of ''V'', i.e. a set of ''n'' linearly independent vectors that span the ''n''-dimensional vector space ''V''. The basis that is dual to <math>\{e_i\}</math> is the set of elements of the [[dual vector space]] ''V''<sup>∗</sup> that forms a [[biorthogonal system]] with this basis, thus being the elements denoted <math>\{e^i\}</math> satisfying
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| :<math>e^i \cdot e_j = \delta^i{}_j,</math>
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| where δ is the [[Kronecker delta]].
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| Given a nondegenerate quadratic form on ''V'', ''V''<sup>∗</sup> becomes naturally identified with ''V'', and the dual basis may be regarded as elements of ''V'', but are not in general the same set as the original basis.
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| Given further a GA of ''V'', let
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| :<math> \epsilon = e_1 \wedge \cdots \wedge e_n</math>
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| be the pseudoscalar (which does not necessarily square to ±1) formed from the basis <math>\{e_i\}</math>. The dual basis vectors may be constructed as
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| :<math>e^i=(-1)^{i-1}(e_1 \wedge \cdots \wedge \check{e}_i \wedge \cdots \wedge e_n) \epsilon^{-1},</math>
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| where the <math>\check{e}_i</math> denotes that the ''i''th basis vector is omitted from the product.
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| ===Extensions of the inner and outer products===
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| It is common practice to extend the outer product on vectors to the entire algebra. This may be done through the use of the grade projection operator:
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| : <math>C \wedge D := \sum_{r,s}\langle \langle C \rangle_r \langle D \rangle_s \rangle_{r+s} </math> (the ''outer product'')
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| This generalization is consistent with the above definition involving antisymmetrization. Another generalization related to the outer product is the commutator product:
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| : <math>C \times D := \tfrac{1}{2}(CD-DC) </math>
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| The regressive product is the dual of the outer product:<ref>Perwass (2005), ''Geometry and Computing'', §3.2.13 p.89</ref>
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| : <math>C \;\triangledown\; D := \sum_{r,s}\langle \langle C \rangle_r \langle D \rangle_s \rangle_{r+s-n} </math>
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| The inner product on vectors can also be generalised, but in more than one non-equivalent way. The paper {{Harvard citation|Dorst|2002}} gives a full treatment of several different inner products developed for geometric algebras and their interrelationships, and the notation is taken from there. Many authors use the same symbol as for the inner product of vectors for their chosen extension (e.g. Hestenes and Perwass). No consistent notation has emerged.
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| Among these several different generalizations of the inner product on vectors are:
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| : <math>\, C \;\big\lrcorner\; D := \sum_{r,s}\langle \langle C\rangle_r \langle D \rangle_{s} \rangle_{s-r} </math> (the ''left contraction'')
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| : <math>\, C \;\big\llcorner\; D := \sum_{r,s}\langle \langle C\rangle_r \langle D \rangle_{s} \rangle_{r-s} </math> (the ''right contraction'')
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| : <math>\, C * D := \sum_{r,s}\langle \langle C \rangle_r \langle D \rangle_s \rangle_{0} </math> (the ''scalar product'')
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| : <math>\, C \bullet D := \sum_{r,s}\langle \langle C\rangle_r \langle D \rangle_{s} \rangle_{|s-r|} </math> (the "(fat) dot" product)
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| : <math>\, C \bullet_H D := \sum_{r\ne0,s\ne0}\langle \langle C\rangle_r \langle D \rangle_{s} \rangle_{|s-r|} </math> (Hestenes's inner product)<ref>Distinguishing notation here is from Dorst (2007) ''Geometric Algebra for computer Science'' §B.1 p.590.; the point is also made that scalars must be handled as a special case with this product.</ref>
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| {{Harvard citation|Dorst|2002}} makes an argument for the use of contractions in preference to Hestenes's inner product; they are algebraically more regular and have cleaner geometric interpretations. A number of identities incorporating the contractions are valid without restriction of their inputs. Benefits of using the left contraction as an extension of the inner product on vectors include that the identity <math> ab = a \cdot b + a \wedge b </math> is extended to <math> aB = a \;\big\lrcorner\; B + a \wedge B</math> for any vector ''a'' and multivector ''B'', and that the [[projection (linear algebra)|projection]] operation <math> \mathcal{P}_b (a) = (a \cdot b^{-1})b </math> is extended to <math> \mathcal{P}_B (A) = (A \;\big\lrcorner\; B^{-1}) \;\big\lrcorner\; B</math> for any blades ''A'' and ''B'' (with a minor modification to accommodate null ''B'', given [[#Projection and rejection|below]]).
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| ===Terminology specific to geometric algebra===
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| Some terms are used in geometric algebra with a meaning that differs from the use of those terms in other fields of mathematics. Some of these are listed here:
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| ;Vector: In GA this refers specifically to an element of the 1-vector subspace unless otherwise clear from the context, despite the entire algebra forming a [[vector space]].
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| ;Grade: In GA this refers to a [[graded algebra|grading as an algebra]] under the outer product (an <math>\mathbb{N}</math>-grading), and not under the geometric product (which produces a Z<sub>2</sub><sup>''n''</sup>-grading).
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| ;Outer product: In GA this refers to what is generally called the [[exterior product]] (including in GA as an alternative). It is not the [[outer product]] of linear algebra.
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| ;Inner product: In GA this generally refers to a scalar product on the vector subspace (which is not required to be positive definite) and may include any chosen extension of this product to the entire algebra. It is not specifically the [[inner product]] on a normed vector space.
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| ;Versor: In GA this refers to an object that can be constructed as the geometric product of any number of non-null vectors. The term otherwise may refer to a [[Versor|unit quaternion]], analogous to a rotor in GA.
| |
| ;[[Outermorphism]]: This term is used only in GA, and refers to a linear map on the vector subspace, extended to apply to the entire algebra by defining it as preserving the outer product.
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| | |
| ==Geometric interpretation==
| |
| | |
| ===Projection and rejection===
| |
| [[File:GA plane subspace and projection.svg|right|300px|thumb|In 3d space, a bivector '''a'''∧'''b''' defines a 2d plane subspace (light blue, extends infinitely in indicated directions). Any vector '''c''' in the 3-space can be projected onto and rejected normal to the plane, shown respectively by '''c'''<sub>⊥</sub> and '''c'''<sub>∥</sub>.]]
| |
| | |
| For any vector ''a'' and any invertible vector ''m'',
| |
| :<math>\, a = amm^{-1} = (a\cdot m + a \wedge m)m^{-1} = a_{\| m} + a_{\perp m} </math>
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| where the '''projection''' of ''a'' onto ''m'' (or the parallel part) is
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| :<math>\, a_{\| m} = (a\cdot m)m^{-1} </math>
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| and the '''rejection''' of ''a'' onto ''m'' (or the perpendicular part) is
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| :<math>\, a_{\perp m} = a - a_{\| m} = (a\wedge m)m^{-1} .</math>
| |
| | |
| Using the concept of a ''k''-blade ''B'' as representing a subspace of ''V'' and every multivector ultimately being expressed in terms of vectors, this generalizes to projection of a general multivector onto any invertible ''k''-blade ''B'' as<ref>This definition follows Dorst (2007) and Perwass (2009) – the left contraction used by Dorst replaces the ("fat dot") inner product that Perwass uses, consistent with Perwass's constraint that grade of ''A'' may not exceed that of ''B''.</ref>
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| :<math>\, \mathcal{P}_B (A) = (A \;\big\lrcorner\; B^{-1}) \;\big\lrcorner\; B </math>
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| with the rejection being defined as
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| :<math>\, \mathcal{P}_B^\perp (A) = A - \mathcal{P}_B (A) .</math>
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| | |
| The projection and rejection generalize to null blades ''B'' by replacing the inverse ''B''<sup>−1</sup> with the pseudoinverse ''B''<sup>+</sup> with respect to the contractive product.<ref>Dorst appears to merely assume ''B''<sup>+</sup> such that {{nowrap|1=''B'' ⨼ ''B''<sup>+</sup> = 1}}, whereas Perwass (2009) defines {{nowrap|1=''B''<sup>+</sup> = ''B''<sup>†</sup>/(''B'' ⨼ ''B''<sup>†</sup>)}}, where ''B''<sup>†</sup> is the conjugate of ''B'', equivalent to the reverse of ''B'' up to a sign.</ref> The outcome of the projection coincides in both cases for non-null blades.{{sfn|Dorst|year=2007|loc=§3.6 p. 85}}<ref>Perwass (2009) §3.2.10.2 p83</ref> For null blades ''B'', the definition of the projection given here with the first contraction rather than the second being onto the pseudoinverse should be used,<ref>That is to say, the projection must be defined as {{nowrap|1=''P''<sub>''B''</sub>(''A'') = (''A'' ⨼ ''B''<sup>+</sup>) ⨼ ''B''}} and not as {{nowrap|1=(''A'' ⨼ ''B'') ⨼ ''B''<sup>+</sup>}}, though the two are equivalent for non-null blades ''B''</ref> as only then is the result necessarily in the subspace represented by ''B''.{{sfn|Dorst|year=2007|loc=§3.6 p. 85}}
| |
| The projection generalizes through linearity to general multivectors ''A''.<ref>This generalization to all ''A'' is apparently not considered by Perwass or Dorst.</ref> The projection is not linear in ''B'' and does not generalize to objects ''B'' that are not blades.
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| | |
| ===Reflections===
| |
| | |
| The definition of a reflection occurs in two forms in the literature. Several authors work with reflection ''on'' a vector (negating all vector components except that parallel to the specifying vector), while others work with reflection ''along'' a vector (negating only the component parallel to the specifying vector, or reflection in the hypersurface orthogonal to that vector). Either may be used to build general versor operations, but the former has the advantage that it extends to the algebra in a simpler and algebraically more regular fashion.
| |
| | |
| ====Reflection ''on'' a vector====
| |
| | |
| [[File:GA reflection on vector.svg|200px|left|thumb|Reflection of vector ''c'' on a vector ''n''. The rejection of ''c'' on ''n'' is negated.]]
| |
| | |
| The result of reflecting a vector ''a'' on another vector ''n'' is to negate the rejection of ''a''. It is akin to reflecting the vector ''a'' through the origin, except that the projection of ''a'' onto ''n'' is not reflected. Such an operation is described by
| |
| :<math>\, a \mapsto nan^{-1} .</math>
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| Repeating this operation results in a general versor operation (including both rotations and reflections) of a general multivector ''A'' being expressed as
| |
| :<math>\, A \mapsto NAN^{-1} .</math>
| |
| This allows a general definition of any versor ''N'' (including both reflections and rotors) as an object that can be expressed as a geometric product of any number of non-null 1-vectors. Such a versor can be applied in a uniform sandwich product as above irrespective of whether it is of even (a proper rotation) or odd grade (an improper rotation i.e. general reflection). The set of all versors with the geometric product as the group operation constitutes the [[Clifford group]] of the Clifford algebra ''C''ℓ<sub>''p'',''q''</sub>('''R''').<ref>Perwass (2009) §3.3.1. Perwass also claims here that David Hestenes coined the term "versor", where he is presumably is referring to the GA context (the term [[versor]] appears to have been used by [[William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]] to refer to an equivalent object of the [[quaternion]] algebra).</ref>
| |
| {{-}}
| |
| | |
| ====Reflection ''along'' a vector====
| |
| | |
| [[File:GA reflection along vector.svg|200px|left|thumb|Reflection of vector ''c'' along a vector ''m''. Only the component of ''c'' parallel to ''m'' is negated.]]
| |
| | |
| The reflection of a vector ''a'' along a vector ''m'', or equivalently in the hyperplane orthogonal to ''m'', is the same as negating the component of a vector parallel to ''m''. The result of the reflection will be
| |
| :<math>\! a' = {-a_{\| m} + a_{\perp m}} = {-(a \cdot m)m^{-1} + (a \wedge m)m^{-1}}
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| = {(-m \cdot a - m \wedge a)m^{-1}}
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| = -mam^{-1} </math>
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| | |
| This is not the most general operation that may be regarded as a reflection when the dimension {{nowrap|''n'' ≥ 4}}. A general reflection may be expressed as the composite of any odd number of single-axis reflections. Thus, a general reflection of a vector may be written
| |
| :<math>\! a \mapsto -MaM^{-1} </math>
| |
| where
| |
| :<math>\! M = pq \ldots r</math> and <math>\! M^{-1} = (pq \ldots r)^{-1} = r^{-1} \ldots q^{-1}p^{-1} .</math>
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| | |
| If we define the reflection along a non-null vector ''m'' of the product of vectors as the reflection of every vector in the product along the same vector, we get for any product of an odd number of vectors that, by way of example,
| |
| :<math> (abc)' = a'b'c' = (-mam^{-1})(-mbm^{-1})(-mcm^{-1}) = -ma(m^{-1}m)b(m^{-1}m)cm^{-1} = -mabcm^{-1} \,</math>
| |
| and for the product of an even number of vectors that
| |
| :<math> (abcd)' = a'b'c'd' = (-mam^{-1})(-mbm^{-1})(-mcm^{-1})(-mdm^{-1})
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| = mabcdm^{-1} .\,</math>
| |
| | |
| Using the concept of every multivector ultimately being expressed in terms of vectors, the reflection of a general multivector ''A'' using any reflection versor ''M'' may be written
| |
| :<math>\, A \mapsto M\alpha(A)M^{-1} ,</math>
| |
| where ''α'' is the [[automorphism]] of [[reflection through the origin]] of the vector space (''v'' ↦ −''v'') extended through multilinearity to the whole algebra.
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| | |
| ===Hypervolume of an ''n''-parallelotope spanned by ''n'' vectors===
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| For vectors <math> a </math> and <math> b </math> spanning a parallelogram we have
| |
| :<math> a \wedge b = ((a \wedge b) b^{-1}) b = a_{\perp b} b </math>
| |
| with the result that <math> a \wedge b</math> is linear in the product of the "altitude" and the "base" of the parallelogram, that is, its area. | |
| | |
| Similar interpretations are true for any number of vectors spanning an ''n''-dimensional [[parallelotope]]; the outer product of vectors ''a''<sub>1</sub>, ''a''<sub>2</sub>, ... ''a<sub>n</sub>'', that is <math>\bigwedge_{i=1}^n a_i </math>, has a magnitude equal to the volume of the ''n''-parallelotope. An ''n''-vector doesn't necessarily have a shape of a parallelotope – this is a convenient visualization. It could be any shape, although the volume equals that of the parallelotope.
| |
| | |
| ===Rotations===
| |
| {{merge section from|Rotation formalisms in three dimensions#Rotors in a geometric algebra|date=September 2013}}
| |
| [[File:GA planar rotations.svg|right|200px|thumb|A rotor that rotates vectors in a plane rotates vectors through angle ''θ'', that is ''x''→''R''<sub>''θ''</sub>''xR''<sub>''θ''</sub><sup>†</sup> is a rotation of ''x'' through angle ''θ''. The angle between ''u'' and ''v'' is ''θ''/2. Similar interpretations are valid for a general multivector ''X'' instead of the vector ''x''.<ref>[http://geocalc.clas.asu.edu/html/IntroPrimerGeometricAlgebra.html]</ref>]]
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| | |
| If we have a product of vectors <math>R = a_1a_2....a_r</math> then we denote the reverse as
| |
| :<math>R^{\dagger}= (a_1a_2....a_r)^{\dagger} = a_r....a_2a_1</math>.
| |
| | |
| As an example, assume that <math> R = ab </math> we get
| |
| :<math>RR^{\dagger} = abba = ab^2a =a^2b^2 = R^{\dagger}R</math>.
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| | |
| Scaling {{math|''R''}} so that {{math|1=''RR''<sup>†</sup> = 1}} then
| |
| :<math>(RvR^{\dagger})^2 = Rv^{2}R^{\dagger}= v^2RR^{\dagger} = v^2 </math>
| |
| so <math>RvR</math><sup>†</sup> leaves the length of <math>v</math> unchanged. We can also show that
| |
| :<math>(Rv_1R^{\dagger}) \cdot (Rv_2R^{\dagger}) = v_1 \cdot v_2</math>
| |
| so the transformation {{math|1=''RvR''<sup>†</sup>}} preserves both length and angle. It therefore can be identified as a rotation or rotoreflection; {{math|''R''}} is called a [[rotor (mathematics)|rotor]] if it is a [[proper rotation]] (as it is if it can be expressed as a product of an even number of vectors) and is an instance of what is known in GA as a ''[[versor]]'' (presumably for historical reasons).
| |
| | |
| There is a general method for rotating a vector involving the formation of a multivector of the form <math> R = e^{-\frac{B \theta}{2}} </math> that produces a rotation <math> \theta </math> in the plane and with the orientation defined by a 2-blade <math> B </math>.
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| | |
| Rotors are a generalization of quaternions to ''n''-D spaces.
| |
| | |
| For more about reflections, rotations and "sandwiching" products like {{math|1=''RvR''<sup>†</sup>}} see [[Plane of rotation]].
| |
| | |
| ==Linear functions==
| |
| An important class of functions of multivectors are the [[linear function]]s mapping multivectors to multivectors. The geometric algebra of an ''n''-dimensional vector space is spanned by 2<sup>''n''</sup> canonical basis elements. If a multivector in this basis is represented by a 2<sup>''n''</sup> x 1 real [[column matrix]], then in principle all linear transformations of the multivector can be written as the [[matrix multiplication]] of a 2<sup>''n''</sup> x 2<sup>''n''</sup> real matrix on the column, just as in the entire theory of [[linear algebra]] in 2<sup>''n''</sup> dimensions.
| |
| | |
| There are several issues with this naive generalization. To see this, recall that the [[eigenvalues]] of a real matrix may in general be complex. The scalar coefficients of blades must be real, so these complex values are of no use. If we attempt to proceed with an analogy for these complex eigenvalues anyway, we know that in ordinary linear algebra, complex eigenvalues are associated with [[rotation matrices]]. However if the linear function is truly general, it could allow arbitrary exchanges among the different grades, such as a "rotation" of a scalar into a vector. This operation has no clear geometric interpretation.
| |
| | |
| We seek to restrict the class of linear functions of multivectors to more geometrically sensible transformations. A common restriction is to require that the linear functions be ''grade-preserving''. The grade-preserving linear functions are the linear functions that map scalars to scalars, vectors to vectors, bivectors to bivectors, etc. In matrix representation, the grade-preserving linear functions are [[block diagonal matrix|block diagonal matrices]], where each ''r''-grade block is of size <math>\binom nr \times \binom nr</math>. A weaker restriction allows the linear functions to map ''r''-grade multivectors into linear combinations of ''r''-grade and (''n''−''r'')-grade multivectors. These functions map scalars into scalars+pseudoscalars, vectors to vectors+pseudovectors, etc.
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| | |
| Often an [[invertible matrix|invertible]] linear transformation from vectors to vectors is already of known interest. There is no unique way to generalize these transformations to the entire geometric algebra without further restriction. Even the restriction that the linear transformation be grade-preserving is not enough. We therefore desire a stronger rule, motivated by geometric interpretation, for generalizing these linear transformations of vectors in a standard way. The most natural choice is that of the ''[[outermorphism]]'' of the linear transformation because it extends the concepts of reflection and rotation straightforwardly. If ''f'' is a function that maps vectors to vectors, then its outermorphism is the function that obeys the rule
| |
| | |
| :<math>\underline{\mathsf{f}}(a_1 \wedge a_2 \wedge \cdots \wedge a_r) = f(a_1) \wedge f(a_2) \wedge \cdots \wedge f(a_r).</math>
| |
| | |
| In particular, the outermorphism of the reflection of a vector on a vector is
| |
| | |
| :<math>nan^{-1} \mapsto nAn^{-1},</math>
| |
| | |
| and the outermorphism of the rotation of a vector by a rotor is
| |
| | |
| :<math>RaR^{\dagger} \mapsto RAR^{\dagger}.</math>
| |
| | |
| ==Examples and applications==
| |
| | |
| ===Intersection of a line and a plane===
| |
| | |
| [[File:LinePlaneIntersect.png|thumb|A line L defined by points T and P (which we seek) and a plane defined by a bivector B containing points P and Q.]]
| |
| | |
| We may define the line parametrically by <math> p = t + \alpha \ v </math> where ''p'' and ''t'' are position vectors for points T and P and ''v'' is the direction vector for the line.
| |
| | |
| Then
| |
| :<math>B \wedge (p-q) = 0</math> and <math>B \wedge (t + \alpha v - q) = 0</math>
| |
| so
| |
| :<math>\alpha = \frac{B \wedge(q-t)}{B \wedge v} </math>
| |
| and
| |
| :<math>p = t + \left(\frac{B \wedge (q-t)}{B \wedge v}\right) v</math>.
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| | |
| ===Rotating systems===
| |
| | |
| The mathematical description of rotational forces such as [[torque]] and [[angular momentum]] make use of the [[cross product]].[[File:Exterior calc cross product.svg|right|thumb|The cross product in relation to the outer product. In red are the unit normal vector, and the "parallel" unit bivector.]]
| |
| | |
| The cross product can be viewed in terms of the outer product allowing a more natural geometric interpretation of the cross product as a bivector using the [[Hodge dual|dual]] relationship
| |
| | |
| :<math>a \times b = -I (a \wedge b) \,.</math>
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| | |
| For example,torque is generally defined as the magnitude of the perpendicular force component times distance, or work per unit angle.
| |
| | |
| Suppose a circular path in an arbitrary plane containing orthonormal vectors <math>\hat{ u}</math> and<math>\hat{ v}</math> is parameterized by angle.
| |
| | |
| :<math>
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| \mathbf{r} = r(\hat{ u} \cos \theta + \hat{ v} \sin \theta) = r \hat{ u}(\cos \theta + \hat{ u} \hat{ v} \sin \theta)
| |
| </math>
| |
| | |
| By designating the unit bivector of this plane as the imaginary number
| |
| | |
| :<math>{i} = \hat{ u} \hat{ v} = \hat{ u} \wedge \hat{ v}</math>
| |
| :<math>{i}^2 = -1</math>
| |
| | |
| this path vector can be conveniently written in complex exponential form
| |
| | |
| :<math>
| |
| \mathbf{r} = r \hat{ u} e^{{i} \theta}
| |
| </math>
| |
| | |
| and the derivative with respect to angle is
| |
| | |
| :<math>
| |
| \frac{d \mathbf{r}}{d\theta} = r \hat{ u} {i} e^{{i} \theta} = \mathbf{r} {i}
| |
| </math>
| |
| | |
| So the torque, the rate of change of work ''W'', due to a force ''F'', is
| |
| | |
| :<math>\tau = \frac{dW}{d\theta} = F \cdot \frac{d r}{d\theta} = F \cdot (\mathbf{r} {i})
| |
| </math>
| |
| | |
| Unlike the cross product description of torque, <math> \tau = \mathbf{r} \times F</math>, the geometric algebra description does not introduce a vector in the normal direction; a vector that does not exist in two and that is not unique in greater than three dimensions. The unit bivector describes the plane and the orientation of the rotation, and the sense of the rotation is relative to the angle between the vectors <math>{\hat{u}}</math> and <math>{\hat{v}}</math>.
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| | |
| ===Electrodynamics and special relativity===
| |
| In physics, the main applications are the geometric algebra of [[Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski 3+1 spacetime]], ''C''ℓ<sub>1,3</sub>, called [[spacetime algebra]] (STA).{{sfn|Hestenes|1966}} or less commonly, ''C''ℓ<sub>3</sub>, called the [[algebra of physical space]] (APS) where ''C''ℓ<sub>3</sub> is isomorphic to the ''even'' subalgebra of the 3+1 Clifford algebra, ''C''ℓ{{su|p=0|b=3,1}}.
| |
| | |
| While in STA points of spacetime are represented simply by vectors, in APS, points of (3+1)-dimensional spacetime are instead represented by [[paravector]]s: a 3-dimensional vector (space) plus a 1-dimensional scalar (time).
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| | |
| In spacetime algebra the electromagnetic field tensor has a bivector representation <math>{F} = ({E} + i c {B})e_0</math>.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.av8n.com/physics/maxwell-ga.htm |title=Electromagnetism using Geometric Algebra versus Components
| |
| |accessdate=19 March 2013}}</ref> Here, the imaginary unit is the (four-dimensional) volume element, and <math>e_0</math> is the unit vector in time direction. Using the [[four-current]] <math>{J}</math>, [[Maxwell's equations]] then become
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| | |
| | |
| :{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
| |
| |-
| |
| !scope="column" width="160px"|Formulation
| |
| !| Homogeneous equations
| |
| !| Non-homogeneous equations
| |
| |-
| |
| ! rowspan="2" |Fields
| |
| | colspan="2" |<math> D F = \mu_0 J </math>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <math> D\wedge F = 0 </math>
| |
| | <math> D\cdot F = \mu_0 J </math>
| |
| |-
| |
| !Potentials (any gauge)
| |
| ||<math>F = D \wedge A</math>
| |
| ||<math>D \cdot D \wedge A = \mu_0 J </math>
| |
| |-
| |
| !Potentials (Lorenz gauge)
| |
| ||<math>F = D A</math>
| |
| <math> D\cdot A = 0 </math>
| |
| ||<math>D^2 A = \mu_0 J </math>
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| In geometric calculus, juxtapositioning of vectors such as in <math>DF</math> indicate the geometric product and can be decomposed into parts as <math>DF=D\cdot F+D\wedge F</math>. Here <math>D</math> is the covector derivative in any spacetime and reduces to <math>\bigtriangledown</math> in flat spacetime. Where <math>\bigtriangledown</math> plays a role in Minkowski 4-spacetime which is synonymous to the role of <math>\nabla</math> in Euclidean 3-space and is related to the D'Alembertian by <math> \Box=\bigtriangledown^2 </math>. Indeed given an observer represented by a future pointing timelike vector <math>\gamma_0</math> we have
| |
| | |
| :<math>\gamma_0\cdot\bigtriangledown=\frac{1}{c}\frac{\partial}{\partial t}</math>
| |
| | |
| :<math>\gamma_0\wedge\bigtriangledown=\nabla</math>
| |
| | |
| [[Lorentz boost|Boosts]] in this Lorenzian metric space have the same expression <math>e^{{\beta}}</math> as rotation in Euclidean space, where <math>{\beta}</math> is the bivector generated by the time and the space directions involved, whereas in the Euclidean case it is the bivector generated by the two space directions, strengthening the "analogy" to almost identity.
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| | |
| ==Relationship with other formalisms==
| |
| <math>\mathcal G(3,0)</math> may be [[Comparison of vector algebra and geometric algebra|directly compared]] to [[Vector calculus#Algebraic operations|vector algebra]].
| |
| | |
| The [[Superalgebra#Even subalgebra|even]] [[subalgebra]] of <math>\mathcal G(2,0)</math> is isomorphic to the [[complex number]]s, as may be seen by writing a vector {{math|1=''P''}} in terms of its components in an orthonormal basis and left multiplying by the basis vector {{math|1=''e''<sub>1</sub>}}, yielding
| |
| | |
| :<math> Z = {e_1} P = {e_1} ( x {e_1} + y {e_2})
| |
| = x (1) + y ( {e_1} {e_2})\,
| |
| </math>
| |
| | |
| where we identify {{math|1=''i'' ↦ ''e''<sub>1</sub>''e''<sub>2</sub>}} since
| |
| | |
| :<math>({e_1}{e_2})^2 = {e_1}{e_2}{e_1}{e_2} = -{e_1}{e_1}{e_2}{e_2} = -1 \,</math>
| |
| | |
| Similarly, the even subalgebra of <math>\mathcal G(3,0)</math> with basis {{math|1={1, ''e''<sub>2</sub>''e''<sub>3</sub>, ''e''<sub>3</sub>''e''<sub>1</sub>, ''e''<sub>1</sub>''e''<sub>2</sub>} }} is isomorphic to the [[quaternion]]s as may be seen by identifying {{math|1=''i'' ↦ −''e''<sub>2</sub>''e''<sub>3</sub>}}, {{math|1=''j'' ↦ −''e''<sub>3</sub>''e''<sub>1</sub>}} and {{math|1=''k'' ↦ −''e''<sub>1</sub>''e''<sub>2</sub>}}.
| |
| | |
| Every [[associative algebra]] has a matrix representation; the [[Pauli matrices]] are a representation of <math>\mathcal G(3,0)</math> and the [[Dirac matrices]] are a representation of <math>\mathcal G(1,3)</math>, showing the equivalence with matrix representations used by physicists.
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| | |
| ==Geometric calculus==
| |
| {{main|Geometric calculus}}
| |
| | |
| Geometric calculus extends the formalism to include differentiation and integration including differential geometry and differential forms.<ref>Clifford Algebra to Geometric Calculus, a Unified Language for mathematics and Physics (Dordrecht/Boston:G.Reidel Publ.Co.,1984</ref>
| |
| | |
| Essentially, the vector derivative is defined so that the GA version of [[Green's theorem]] is true,
| |
| :<math>\int_{A} dA \nabla f = \oint_{\partial A} dx f</math>
| |
| and then one can write
| |
| :<math>\nabla f = \nabla \cdot f + \nabla \wedge f</math>
| |
| as a geometric product, effectively generalizing [[Stokes' theorem]] (including the differential form version of it).
| |
| | |
| In <math>1D</math> when A is a curve with endpoints <math>a</math> and <math>b</math>, then
| |
| :<math>\int_{A} dA \nabla f = \oint_{\partial A} dx f</math>
| |
| reduces to
| |
| :<math>\int_{a}^{b} dx \nabla f = \int_{a}^{b} dx \cdot \nabla f = \int_{a}^{b} df = f(b) -f(a)</math>
| |
| or the fundamental theorem of integral calculus.
| |
| | |
| Also developed are the concept of vector manifold and geometric integration theory (which generalizes Cartan's differential forms).
| |
| | |
| ==Conformal geometric algebra (CGA)==
| |
| {{main|Conformal geometric algebra}}
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| A compact description of the current state of the art is provided by Bayro-Corrochano and Scheuermann (2010),<ref>Geometric Algebra Computing in Engineering and Computer Science, E.Bayro-Corrochano & Gerik Scheuermann (Eds),Springer 2010. Extract online at http://geocalc.clas.asu.edu/html/UAFCG.html #5 New Tools for Computational Geometry and rejuvenation of Screw Theory</ref> which also includes further references, in particular to Dorst ''et al'' (2007).<ref>{{cite book|first1=Leo |last1=Dorst |first2=Daniel |last2=Fontijne |first3=Stephen |last3=Mann |title=Geometric algebra for computer science: an object-oriented approach to geometry |publisher=Elsevier/Morgan Kaufmann |location=Amsterdam |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-12-369465-2 |oclc=132691969 |url=http://www.geometricalgebra.net/ |ref=harv}}</ref> Other useful references are Li (2008).<ref>Hongbo Li (2008) ''Invariant Algebras and Geometric Reasoning'', Singapore: World Scientific. Extract online at http://www.worldscibooks.com/etextbook/6514/6514_chap01.pdf</ref> and Bayro (2010).<ref>Bayro-Corrochano, Eduardo (2010). Geometric Computing for Wavelet Transforms, Robot Vision, Learning, Control and Action. Springer Verlag</ref>
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| [[File:Conformal Embedding.svg|right|300px]]
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| Working within GA, Euclidian space <math>\mathcal E^3</math> is embedded projectively in the CGA <math>\mathcal G^{4,1}</math> via the identification of Euclidean points with 1D subspaces in the 4D null cone of the 5D CGA vector subspace, and adding a point at infinity. This allows all conformal transformations to be done as rotations and reflections and is [[Covariance and contravariance of vectors|covariant]], extending incidence relations of projective geometry to circles and spheres.
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| Specifically, we add orthogonal basis vectors <math>\, e_+ </math> and <math>\, e_- </math> such that <math>\, {e_+}^2 = +1 </math> and <math>\, {e_-}^2 = -1 </math> to the basis of <math> \mathcal{G}(3,0) </math> and identify [[null vectors]]
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| :<math> n_{\infty} = e_- + e_+ </math> as an [[ideal point]] (point at infinity) (see [[Compactification (mathematics)|Compactification]]) and
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| :<math> n_{o} = \tfrac{1}{2}(e_- - e_+) </math> as the point at the origin, giving
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| :<math> n_{\infty} \cdot n_{o} = -1 </math>.
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| This procedure has some similarities to the procedure for working with [[homogeneous coordinates]] in projective geometry and in this case allows the modeling of [[Euclidean transformation]]s as [[orthogonal transformation]]s.
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| A fast changing and fluid area of GA, CGA is also being investigated for applications to
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| relativistic physics.
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| ==History==
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| ;Before the 20th century
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| Although the connection of geometry with algebra dates as far back at least to [[Euclid]]'s ''[[Euclid's Elements|Elements]]'' in the 3rd century B.C. (see [[History of elementary algebra#Greek geometric algebra|Greek geometric algebra]]),
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| GA in the sense used in this article was not developed until 1844, when it was used in a ''systematic way'' to describe the geometrical properties and ''transformations'' of a space. In that year, [[Hermann Grassmann]] introduced the idea of a geometrical algebra in full generality as a certain calculus (analogous to the [[propositional calculus]]) that encoded all of the geometrical information of a space.<ref>{{cite book|first=Hermann |last=Grassmann |authorlink=Hermann Grassmann |title=Die lineale Ausdehnungslehre ein neuer Zweig der Mathematik: dargestellt und durch Anwendungen auf die übrigen Zweige der Mathematik, wie auch auf die Statik, Mechanik, die Lehre vom Magnetismus und die Krystallonomie erläutert |year=1844 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=bKgAAAAAMAAJ |oclc=20521674 |publisher=O. Wigand |location=Leipzig |ref=harv}}</ref> Grassmann's algebraic system could be applied to a number of different kinds of spaces, the chief among them being [[Euclidean space]], [[affine space]], and [[projective space]]. Following Grassmann, in 1878 [[William Kingdon Clifford]] examined Grassmann's algebraic system alongside the [[quaternions]] of [[William Rowan Hamilton]] in {{Harvard citation|Clifford|1878}}. From his point of view, the quaternions described certain ''transformations'' (which he called ''rotors''), whereas Grassmann's algebra described certain ''properties'' (or ''Strecken'' such as length, area, and volume). His contribution was to define a new product — the '''geometric product''' — on an existing Grassmann algebra, which realized the quaternions as living within that algebra. Subsequently [[Rudolf Lipschitz]] in 1886 generalized Clifford's interpretation of the quaternions and applied them to the geometry of rotations in ''n'' dimensions. Later these developments would lead other 20th-century mathematicians to formalize and explore the properties of the Clifford algebra.
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| Nevertheless, another revolutionary development of the 19th-century would completely overshadow the geometric algebras: that of [[vector analysis]], developed independently by [[Josiah Willard Gibbs]] and [[Oliver Heaviside]]. Vector analysis was motivated by [[James Clerk Maxwell]]'s studies of [[electromagnetism]], and specifically the need to express and manipulate conveniently certain [[differential equation]]s. Vector analysis had a certain intuitive appeal compared to the rigors of the new algebras. Physicists and mathematicians alike readily adopted it as their geometrical toolkit of choice, particularly following the influential 1901 textbook ''[[Vector Analysis]]'' by [[Edwin Bidwell Wilson]], following lectures of Gibbs.
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| In more detail, there have been three approaches to geometric algebra: [[quaternion]]ic analysis, initiated by Hamilton in 1843 and geometrized as rotors by Clifford in 1878; geometric algebra, initiated by Grassmann in 1844; and vector analysis, developed out of quaternionic analysis in the late 19th century by Gibbs and Heaviside. The legacy of quaternionic analysis in vector analysis can be seen in the use of {{math|1=''i'', ''j'', ''k''}} to indicate the basis vectors of '''R'''<sup>3</sup>: it is being thought of as the purely imaginary quaternions. From the perspective of geometric algebra, [[Quaternion#Quaternions as the even part of Cℓ3,0(R)|quaternions can be identified as ''C''ℓ<sup>0</sup><sub>3,0</sub>('''R''')]], the even part of the Clifford algebra on Euclidean 3-space, which unifies the three approaches.
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| ;20th century and present
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| Progress on the study of Clifford algebras quietly advanced through the twentieth century, although largely due to the work of [[abstract algebra]]ists such as [[Hermann Weyl]] and [[Claude Chevalley]]. The ''geometrical'' approach to geometric algebras has seen a number of 20th-century revivals. In mathematics, [[Emil Artin]]'s ''Geometric Algebra''<ref>{{citation |first=Emil |last=Artin |title=Geometric algebra |series=Wiley Classics Library|publisher=John Wiley & Sons Inc. |place=New York |year=1988 |pages=x+214 |isbn=0-471-60839-4|mr=1009557}} ''(Reprint of the 1957 original; A Wiley-Interscience Publication)''
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| </ref> discusses the algebra associated with each of a number of geometries, including [[affine geometry]], [[projective geometry]], [[symplectic geometry]], and [[orthogonal geometry]]. In physics, geometric algebras have been revived as a "new" way to do classical mechanics and electromagnetism, together with more advanced topics such as quantum mechanics and gauge theory.<ref>{{cite book|first=Chris J. L. |last=[[Chris J. L. Doran|Doran]] |date=February 1994 |title=Geometric Algebra and its Application to Mathematical Physics |type=Ph.D. thesis |publisher=[[University of Cambridge]] |url=http://www.mrao.cam.ac.uk/~clifford/publications/abstracts/chris_thesis.html |oclc=53604228 |ref=harv}}</ref> [[David Hestenes]] reinterpreted the Pauli and Dirac matrices as vectors in ordinary space and spacetime, respectively, and has been a primary contemporary advocate for the use of geometric algebra.
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| In [[computer graphics]] and robotics, geometric algebras have been revived in order to efficiently represent rotations and other transformations. For applications of GA in robotics (screw theory, kinematics and dynamics using versors), computer vision, control and neural computing (geometric learning) see Bayro (2010).
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| ==Software==
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| GA is a very application oriented subject. There is a reasonably steep initial learning curve associated with it, but this can be eased somewhat by the use of applicable software.
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| The following is a list of freely available software that does not require ownership of commercial software or purchase of any commercial products for this purpose:
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| * GA Viewer [http://www.geometricalgebra.net/downloads.html Fontijne, Dorst, Bouma & Mann]
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| The link provides a manual, introduction to GA and sample material as well as the software.
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| * CLUViz [http://www.clucalc.info/ Perwass]
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| Software allowing script creation and including sample visualizations, manual and GA introduction.
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| * Gaigen [[SourceForge:projects/g25/|Fontijne]]
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| For programmers,this is a code generator with support for C,C++,C# and Java.
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| * Cinderella Visualizations [http://sinai.apphy.u-fukui.ac.jp/gcj/software/GAcindy-1.4/GAcindy.htm Hitzer] and [http://staff.science.uva.nl/~leo/cinderella/ Dorst].
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| * Gaalop [http://www.gaalop.de] Standalone GUI-Application that uses the Open-Source Computer Algebra Software [[Maxima (software)|Maxima]] to break down CLUViz code into C/C++ or Java code.
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| * Gaalop Precompiler [http://www.gaalop.de] Precompiler based on Gaalop integrated with [[CMake]].
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| * Gaalet, C++ Expression Template Library [http://sourceforge.net/apps/trac/gaalet/ Seybold].
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| * GALua, A Lua module adding GA data-types to the Lua programming language [http://spencerparkin.github.com/GALua/ Parkin].
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| ==See also==
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| * [[Comparison of vector algebra and geometric algebra]]
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| * [[Clifford algebra]]
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| * [[Spacetime algebra]]
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| * [[Spinor]]
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| * [[Quaternion]]
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| * [[Algebra of physical space]] ([[wikibooks:Physics in the Language of Geometric Algebra. An Approach with the Algebra of Physical Space]])
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| * [[Universal geometric algebra]]
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| ==References==
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| {{Reflist}}
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| * {{citation|editor=Baylis, W. E. |year=1996 |title=Clifford (Geometric) Algebra with Applications to Physics, Mathematics, and Engineering|publisher=Birkhäuser}}
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| * {{citation|last=Baylis|first=W. E.|year=2002 |title=Electrodynamics: A Modern Geometric Approach|edition=2|publisher=Birkhäuser|ISBN=978-0-8176-4025-5}}
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| * {{citation|last=Bourbaki|first=Nicolas|authorlink=Nicolas Bourbaki| year=1980|title=Eléments de Mathématique. Algèbre|location=Ch. 9 "Algèbres de Clifford"|publisher=Hermann}}
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| *{{citation|last=Dorst|first=Leo|title=The inner products of geometric algebra|publisher=Birkhäuser Boston|place=Boston, MA|year=2002|page=35−46}}
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| * {{citation|last=Hestenes|first=David|authorlink=David Hestenes| year=1999| title=New Foundations for Classical Mechanics| edition=2|publisher=Springer Verlag| ISBN=978-0-7923-5302-7}}
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| *{{cite book|first=David |last=Hestenes |authorlink=David Hestenes |title=Space-time Algebra |location=New York |publisher=Gordon and Breach |year=1966 |oclc=996371 |isbn=978-0-677-01390-9}}
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| * {{citation|last1=Lasenby|first1= J.| last2=Lasenby|first2=A. N.|last3=Doran|first3= C. J. L.|year=2000|url=http://www.mrao.cam.ac.uk/%7Eclifford/publications/ps/dll_millen.pdf|title=A Unified Mathematical Language for Physics and Engineering in the 21st Century| journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London|issue=A 358|location=pp. 1–18}}
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| *{{cite book|last1=Doran|first1=Chris|last2=Lasenby|first2=Anthony |title=Geometric algebra for physicists |url=http://assets.cambridge.org/052148/0221/sample/0521480221WS.pdf |year=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-71595-9}}
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| *{{cite book|first=Alan |last=Macdonald |title=Linear and Geometric Algebra |location=Charleston |publisher=CreateSpace |year=2011 |oclc=704377582 |isbn=9781453854938}}
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| *{{cite book|title=The ontology of spacetime |editor=[[Dennis Dieks]] |author=J Bain |chapter=Spacetime structuralism: §5 Manifolds ''vs.'' geometric algebra |page=54 ''ff'' |isbn=978-0-444-52768-4 |year=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |url=http://books.google.com/?id=OI5BySlm-IcC&pg=PT72}}
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| *{{cite book|last1=Bayro-Corrochano|first1=Eduardo|title=Geometric Computing for Wavelet Transforms, Robot Vision, Learning, Control and Action |year=2010 |publisher=Springer Verlag}}
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| ==External links==
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| * [http://faculty.luther.edu/~macdonal/GA&GC.pdf A Survey of Geometric Algebra and Geometric Calculus] [http://faculty.luther.edu/~macdonal/ Alan Macdonald], Luther College, Iowa.
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| * [http://www.mrao.cam.ac.uk/~clifford/introduction/intro/intro.html Imaginary Numbers are not Real – the Geometric Algebra of Spacetime]. Introduction (Cambridge GA group).
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| * [http://www.mrao.cam.ac.uk/~clifford/ptIIIcourse/ Physical Applications of Geometric Algebra]. Final-year undergraduate course by Chris Doran and Anthony Lasenby (Cambridge GA group; see also [http://www.mrao.cam.ac.uk/~clifford/ptIIIcourse/course99/ 1999 version]).
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| * [http://www.iancgbell.clara.net/maths/ Maths for (Games) Programmers: 5 – Multivector methods]. Comprehensive introduction and reference for programmers, from [[Ian Bell (programmer)|Ian Bell]].
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| * {{planetmath reference|id=3770|title=Geometric Algebra}}
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| *[[arXiv:0907.5356|Clifford algebra, geometric algebra, and applications]] Douglas Lundholm, Lars Svensson Lecture notes for a course on the theory of Clifford algebras, with special emphasis on their wide range of applications in mathematics and physics.
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| *[http://www.visgraf.impa.br/Courses/ga/ IMPA SUmmer School 2010] Fernandes Oliveira Intro and Slides.
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| * [http://sinai.apphy.u-fukui.ac.jp/gcj/pubs.html University of Fukui] E.S.M. Hitzer and Japan GA publications.
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| * [http://groups.google.com/group/geometric_algebra Google Group for GA]
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| * [http://www.jaapsuter.com/geometric-algebra/ Geometric Algebra Primer] Introduction to GA, Jaap Suter.
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| '''English translations of early books and papers'''
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| *[http://neo-classical-physics.info/uploads/3/0/6/5/3065888/combebiac_-_tri-quaternions.pdf G. Combebiac, "calculus of tri-quaternions"] (Doctoral dissertation)
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| *[http://neo-classical-physics.info/uploads/3/0/6/5/3065888/markic_-_tri_and_quadri-quaternions.pdf M. Markic, "Transformants: A new mathematical vehicle. A synthesis of Combebiac's tri-quaternions and Grassmann's geometric system. The calculus of quadri-quaternions"]
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| * [http://neo-classical-physics.info/uploads/3/0/6/5/3065888/burali-forti_-_grassman_and_proj._geom..pdf C. Burali-Forti, "The Grassmann method in projective geometry"] A compilation of three notes on the application of exterior algebra to projective geometry
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| * [http://neo-classical-physics.info/uploads/3/0/6/5/3065888/burali-forti_-_diff._geom._following_grassmann.pdf C. Burali-Forti, "Introduction to Differential Geometry, following the method of H. Grassmann"] Early book on the application of Grassmann algebra
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| * [http://neo-classical-physics.info/uploads/3/0/6/5/3065888/grassmann_-_mechanics_and_extensions.pdf H. Grassmann, "Mechanics, according to the principles of the theory of extension"] One of his papers on the applications of exterior algebra.
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| '''Research groups'''
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| * [http://sinai.apphy.u-fukui.ac.jp/gcj/gc_int.html Geometric Calculus International]. Links to Research groups, Software, and Conferences, worldwide.
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| * [http://www.mrao.cam.ac.uk/~clifford/ Cambridge Geometric Algebra group]. Full-text online publications, and other material.
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| * [http://www.science.uva.nl/ga/ University of Amsterdam group]
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| * [http://geocalc.clas.asu.edu/ Geometric Calculus research & development] (Arizona State University).
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| * [http://gaupdate.wordpress.com/ GA-Net blog] and [http://sinai.apphy.u-fukui.ac.jp/GA-Net/archive/index.html newsletter archive]. Geometric Algebra/Clifford Algebra development news.
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| *[http://www.gdl.cinvestav.mx/edb/ Geometric Algebra for Perception Action Systems. Geometric Cybernetics Group] (CINVESTAV, Campus Guadalajara, Mexico).
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Geometric Algebra}}
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| [[Category:Clifford algebras]]
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| [[Category:Ring theory]]
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| [[Category:Geometric algebra| ]]
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