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| [[File:Upper Jaw Dentition.jpeg|thumb|335px|Cast of a human upper jaw showing [[incisor]]s, [[Canine tooth|canines]], [[premolar]]s, and 2 of the 3 sets of [[Molar (tooth)|molars]].]]
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| '''Dentition''' pertains to the [[tooth development|development of teeth]] and their arrangement in the [[mouth]]. In particular, it is the characteristic arrangement, kind, and number of teeth in a given species at a given age.<ref name="ShorterOEDp646"/> That is, the number, type, and morpho-physiology (the physical shape) of the teeth of an animal.<ref name=Martin1983p103/> | |
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| Animals whose teeth are all of the same type, such as most non-mammalian vertebrates, are said to have ''[[homodont]]'' dentition, whereas those whose teeth differ morphologically are said to have ''[[heterodont]]'' dentition. The dentition of animals with two successions of teeth ([[Deciduous teeth|deciduous]], [[Permanent teeth|permanent]]) is referred to as ''[[diphyodont]]'', while the dentition of animals with only one set of teeth throughout life is ''monophyodont''. The dentition of animals in which the teeth are continuously discarded and replaced throughout life is termed ''polyphyodont''.<ref name=Martin1983p103/>
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| ==Overview==
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| Vertebrate dentition originated from a folding in of the [[placoderm]]'s armour, evolving into the familiar condition of living [[reptile]]s, [[amphibian]]s, and [[fish]]: a long row of pointed or sharp-sided, undifferentiated teeth (''homodont'') that are completely replaceable. The mammalian pattern is significantly different. The teeth in the upper and lower jaws in mammals have evolved a close-fitting relationship such that they operate together as a unit. "They ''occlude'', that is, the chewing surfaces of the teeth are so constructed that the upper and lower teeth are able to fit precisely together, cutting, crushing, grinding or shearing the food caught between."<ref name=Weiss&Mann1985pp130-131/>
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| All [[mammal]]s except the [[monotreme]]s, the [[xenarthran]]s, the [[pangolin]]s, and the [[cetacea]]ns{{citation needed|date=May 2010}} have up to four distinct types of teeth, with a maximum number for each. These are the [[incisor]] ''(cutting)'', the [[canine tooth|canine]], the [[premolar]], and the [[molar (tooth)|molar]] ''(grinding)''. The incisors occupy the front of the tooth row in both upper and lower jaws. They are normally flat, chisel-shaped teeth that meet in an edge-to-edge bite. Their function is cutting, slicing, or gnawing food into manageable pieces that fit into the mouth for further chewing. The canines are immediately behind the incisors. In many mammals, the canines are pointed, tusk-shaped teeth, projecting beyond the level of the other teeth. In carnivores, they are primarily offensive weapons for bringing down prey. In other mammals such as some primates, they are used to split open hard surfaced food. The premolars and molars are at the back of the mouth. Depending on the particular mammal and its diet, these two kinds of teeth prepare pieces of food to be swallowed by grinding, shearing, or crushing. The specialised teeth - incisors, canines, premolars, and molars - are found in the same order in every mammal.<ref name=Weiss&Mann1985p132-135/>
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| In many mammals the infants have a set of teeth that fall out and are replaced by [[adult teeth]]. These are called [[deciduous teeth]], primary teeth, baby teeth or milk teeth.<ref name=Swindler2002/><ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&Evolp135/> Animals that have two sets of teeth, one followed by the other, are said to be diphyodont. Normally the dental formula for milk teeth is the same as for adult teeth except that the molars are missing.
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| ==Dental formula==
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| Because mammalian teeth are specialised for different functions, many mammal groups have lost teeth not needed in their adaptation. Tooth form has also undergone evolutionary modification as a result of natural selection for specialised feeding or other adaptations. Over time, different mammal groups have evolved distinct dental features, both in the number and type of teeth, and in the shape and size of the chewing surface.<ref name=Weiss&Mann1985p134/>
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| The number of teeth of each type is written as a dental formula for one side of the mouth, or [[Circular sector|quadrant]], with the upper and lower teeth shown on separate rows. The number of teeth in a mouth is twice that listed as there are two sides. In each set, incisors (I) are indicated first, canines (C) second, premolars (P) third, and finally molars (M), giving I:C:P:M.<ref name=Weiss&Mann1985p134/><ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&EvolDentalFormula/> So for example, the formula 2.1.2.3 for upper teeth indicates 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars, and 3 molars on one side of the upper mouth.
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| The deciduous dental formula is notated in lowercase lettering preceded by the letter d: e.g. di:dc:dp.<ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&EvolDentalFormula/> An animal's dentition for either deciduous or permanent teeth can thus be expressed as a dental formula, written in the form of a fraction, which can be written as {{DentalFormula|upper=I.C.P.M|lower=I.C.P.M}}, or I.C.P.M / I.C.P.M.<ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&EvolDentalFormula/><ref name=Martin1983p102/> For example, the following formulae show the deciduous and permanent dentition of all [[Catarrhini|catarrhine primate]]s, including humans:
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| #Deciduous: <math>(di^2-dc^1-dp^2) / (di_2-dc_1-dp_2) \times 2 =20.</math><ref name=Swindler2002/> This can also be written as {{DentalFormula|upper=di2.dc1.dp2|lower=di2.dc1.dp2}}. (Superscript and subscript denote upper and lower jaw, i.e. do not indicate mathematical operations; the numbers are the count of the teeth of each type. The '-' in the formula are likewise not mathematical operators, but spacers. 'd' denotes deciduous, i.e. milk or baby teeth, and lower case also indicates temporary teeth. This is a redundancy.) Another annotation is {{DentalFormula|upper=2.1.2|lower=2.1.2}}, ''if'' the fact that it pertains to deciduous teeth is clearly stated, per examples found in some texts such as ''The Cambridge Dictionary of Human Biology and Evolution''<ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&EvolDentalFormula/>
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| #Permanent: <math>(I^2-C^1-P^2-M^3) / (I_2-C_1-P_2-M_3) \times 2 =32.</math><ref name=Swindler2002/> This can also be written as {{DentalFormula|upper=2.1.2.3|lower=2.1.2.3}}. When the upper and lower dental formulae are the same, some texts write the formula without a fraction (in this case, 2.1.2.3), on the implicit assumption that the reader will realise it must apply to both upper and lower quadrants. This is seen for example throughout ''The Cambridge Dictionary of Human Biology and Evolution''.
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| The greatest number of teeth in any known [[placental]] mammal was 48, with a formula of {{DentalFormula|upper=3.1.5.3|lower=3.1.5.3}}.<ref name=Weiss&Mann1985p134/> However, no existing (or extant) placental mammal has this number. In extant placental mammals, the maximum dental formula is: {{DentalFormula|upper=3.1.4.3|lower=3.1.4.3}} Mammal teeth are usually symmetrical, but not always. For example, the [[aye-aye]] has a formula of {{DentalFormula|upper=1.0.1.3|lower=1.0.0.3}}, demonstrating the need for both upper and lower quadrant counts.<ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&EvolDentalFormula/>
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| ===Tooth naming discrepancies===
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| Teeth are numbered starting at 1 in each group. Thus the [[human]] teeth are I1, I2, C1, P3, P4, M1, M2, and M3.<ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&EvolDentalEruption/> In humans, the third molar is known as the [[wisdom tooth]], whether or not it has erupted.<ref name=Harris1988p34/>
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| Regarding premolars, there is disagreement regarding whether the third type of deciduous tooth is a premolar (the general consensus among mammalogists) or a molar (commonly held among human anatomists).<ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&Evolp135/> There is thus some discrepancy between nomenclature in zoology and in dentistry. This is because the terms of human dentistry, which have generally prevailed over time, have not included mammalian dental evolutionary theory. There were originally four premolars in each quadrant of early mammalian jaws. However, all living primates have lost at least the first premolar. "Hence most of the [[prosimian]]s and [[platyrrhine]]s have three premolars. Some genera have also lost more than one. A second premolar has been lost in all catarrhines. The remaining permanent premolars are then properly identified as P2, P3 and P4 or P3 and P4; however, traditional dentistry refers to them as P1 and P2".<ref name=Swindler2002/>
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| ===Dental eruption sequence===
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| The order in which teeth emerge through the gums is known as the '''dental eruption sequence'''. Rapidly developing anthropoid primates such as [[macaque]]s, [[chimpanzee]]s, and [[australopithecine]]s have an eruption sequence of M1 I1 I2 M2 P3 P4 C M3, whereas [[anatomically modern humans]] have the sequence M1 I1 I2 C P3 P4 M2 M3. The later that tooth emergence begins, the earlier the anterior teeth (I1-P4) appear in the sequence.<ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&EvolDentalEruption/>
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| ==Dental formulae examples==
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| <!-- Table --> | |
| {|class="wikitable"
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| |+ '''Some examples of mammalian dental formulae'''{{Ref_label|a|a|none}}
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| !Species
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| !Dental formula
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| !Comment
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| | '''Non placental'''||. || Non-placental mammals such as [[marsupial]]s can have more teeth than placentals. For example, the opossum (below)
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| | [[Kangaroo]] || {{DentalFormula|upper=3.1.2.4|lower=1.0.2.4}}<ref>http://www.1902encyclopedia.com/K/KAN/kangaroo.html</ref> ||<br>
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| | [[Musky Rat-kangaroo]] || {{DentalFormula|upper=3.1.1.4|lower=2.0.1.4}} <ref name="Bettongs, potoroos and the musky rat-kangaroo">{{Citation|first=Andrew W. Claridge, John H. Seebeck, Randy Rose|title=Bettongs, potoroos and the musky rat-kangaroo|year=2007|publisher=Csiro Publishing|isbn=978-0-643-09341-6 |pages=182 pages}}</ref> ||<br>
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| | All of [[Potoroidae]] except [[Musky Rat-kangaroo]]|| {{DentalFormula|upper=3.1.1.4|lower=1.0.1.4}} <ref name="Bettongs, potoroos and the musky rat-kangaroo"/>||The marsupial family Potoroidae includes the [[bettongs]], [[potoroos]], and two of the [[Rat-Kangaroo|rat-kangaroos]]. All are rabbit-sized, brown, jumping marsupials and resemble a large rodent or a very small wallaby.<br>
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| | [[Opossum]] || {{DentalFormula|upper=5.1.3.4|lower=4.1.3.4}} ||<br>
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| |'''Placental'''||.||Some examples of dental formulae for placental mammals
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| |[[Armadillo]]||{{DentalFormula|upper=0.0.7.1|lower=0.0.7.1}}<ref name=Freeman&Genoways/>||<br>
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| |[[Aye-aye]]||{{DentalFormula|upper=1.0.1.3|lower=1.0.0.3}}<ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&EvolAye-aye/>||A Prosimian. The Aye-aye's deciduous dental formula (dI:dC:dM) is {{DentalFormula|upper=2.1.2|lower=2.1.2}}<ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&EvolDentalFormula/>
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| |[[Badger]]||{{DentalFormula|upper=3.1.3.1|lower=3.1.3.2}}<ref name=Chunnie>{{cite web|title=The Skulls|url=http://www.geocities.ws/chunniemonster/adultsandbabies.html|work=Chunnie's British Mammal Skulls|accessdate=15 October 2011}}</ref> ||<br>
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| |[[Big brown bat]]||{{DentalFormula|upper=2.1.1.3|lower=3.1.2.3}}<ref name="WWT"/> ||<br>
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| |[[Eastern Red Bat|Red Bat]], [[Hoary Bat]], [[Seminole Bat]], [[Mexican Free-tailed Bat]]||{{DentalFormula|upper=1.1.2.3|lower=3.1.2.3}}<ref name="WWT"/> ||<br>
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| |[[Cat]] (deciduous)||{{DentalFormula|upper=di3.dc1.dp3.dm0|lower=di3.dc1.dp2.dm0}}<ref name="provet"/>||<br>
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| |[[Cat]] || {{DentalFormula|upper=3.1.3.1|lower=3.1.2.1}}<ref name=Martin1983p102/> || The last upper premolar and first lower molar of the cat, since it is a [[Carnivora|carnivore]], are called [[carnassial]]s and are used to slice meat and skin. This means that the carnassials are always the fourth upper premolar and the first lower molar
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| |[[Cow]]||{{DentalFormula|upper=0.0.3.3|lower=3.1.3.3}}<ref>http://www.fsis.usda.gov/ofo/tsc/bse_information.htm</ref>|| The cow has no upper incisors or canines, the rostral portion of the upper jaw forming a dental pad. The lower canine is incisiform, giving the appearance of a 4th incisor.<br>
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| |[[Dog]] (deciduous)||{{DentalFormula|upper=di3.dc1.dp3.dm0|lower=di3.dc1.dp3.dm0}}<ref name="provet">http://www.provet.co.uk/health/diagnostics/dentalformulae.htm</ref>||<br>
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| |[[Dog]] (permanent)||{{DentalFormula|upper=3.1.4.2|lower=3.1.4.3}}<ref name="Chunnie"/>||<br>
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| |[[Eulemur]]||{{DentalFormula|upper=3.1.3.3|lower=3.1.3.3}} ||Prosimian genus to which the large Malagasy or [[True lemur|'true' lemurs]] belong.<ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&Evolp177/> [[Ruffed lemur]]s (genus ''Varecia''),<ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&Evolp550/> [[Dwarf lemur]]s (genus ''Mirza''),<ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&Evolp340/> and [[Mouse lemur]]s (genus ''Microcebus'') also have this dental formula, but the mouse lemurs have a [[Toothcomb|dental comb]]<ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&Evolp335/>
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| |Euoticus|| {{DentalFormula|upper=2.1.3.3|lower=2.1.3.3}} ||Prosimian genus to which the [[Needle-clawed bushbaby|needle-clawed bushbabies]] (or [[galago]]s) belong. Specialised morphology for gummivory includes procumbent dental comb and caniniform upper anterior premolars.<ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&Evolp177/>
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| |[[Fox]] (red)||{{DentalFormula|upper=3.1.4.2|lower=3.1.4.3}}<ref name="Chunnie"/>||<br>
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| |[[Guinea pig]]||{{DentalFormula|upper=1.0.1.3|lower=1.0.1.3}}<ref>http://www.adelaide.edu.au/ANZCCART/publications/Guinea%20Pig_17.pdf</ref>||<br>
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| |[[Hedgehog]]||{{DentalFormula|upper=3.1.3.3|lower=2.1.2.3}}<ref name="Chunnie"/>||<br>
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| |[[Horse]] (deciduous)||{{DentalFormula|upper=3.0.3.0|lower=3.0.3.0}}<ref name=Pence2002/><ref name=Cirelli/>||<br>
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| |Horse (permanent)|| {{DentalFormula|upper=3.0-1.3-4.3|lower=3.0-1.3.3}} ||Permanent dentition varies from 36-42, depending on the presence or absence of canines and the number of premolars.<ref name=UltimateUnqulate/> The first premolar ([[wolf tooth]]) may be absent or rudimentary,<ref name=Pence2002/><ref name=Cirelli/> and is mostly present only in the upper (maxillary) jaw.<ref name=Cirelli/> The canines are small and spade-shaped, and usually present only in males.<ref name=UltimateUnqulate/> Canines appear in 20-25% of females and are usually smaller than in males.<ref name=Cirelli/>{{Ref_label|b|b|none}}
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| | Human ([[deciduous teeth]]) || {{DentalFormula|upper=2.1.2|lower=2.1.2}} ||<br>
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| | Human ([[permanent teeth]]) || {{DentalFormula|upper=2.1.2.3|lower=2.1.2.3}}<ref name=Martin1983p102/> ||This pattern is shared with [[Ape]]s and [[Old World monkey]]s (excluding [[Prosimian|Prosimii]]), and is sometimes known as the ''cercopithecoid dental formula''.<ref name=Harris1988p34/>
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| |[[Indri]]||See comment||A prosimian. Dental formula disputed. Either {{DentalFormula|upper=2.1.2.3|lower=2.0.2.3}} or {{DentalFormula|upper=2.1.2.3|lower=1.1.2.3}}. Proponents of both formulae agree there are 30 teeth and that there are only four teeth in the dental comb.<ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&Evolp267/>
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| |[[Sportive lemur|Lepilemur]]||{{DentalFormula|upper=0.1.3.3|lower=2.1.3.3}}||A prosimian. The upper incisors are lost in the adult, but are present in the deciduous dentition.<ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&Evolp300/>
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| |[[Lion]] || {{DentalFormula|upper=3.1.3.1|lower=3.1.2.1}} <ref>http://www.geocities.ws/chunniemonster/dental_formula.html</ref> ||<br>
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| |[[Mole (animal)|Mole]]||{{DentalFormula|upper=3.1.4.3|lower=3.1.4.3}}<ref name="Chunnie"/>||<br>
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| |[[Mouse]] (House)||{{DentalFormula|upper=1.0.0.3|lower=1.0.0.3}}<ref name="Chunnie"/>||[[Plains Pocket Mouse]] (''Perognathus flavescens'') have dental formula of {{DentalFormula|upper=1.0.1.3|lower=1.0.1.3}}<ref>http://www.nsrl.ttu.edu/tmot1/perflave.htm</ref>
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| |New World anthropoids ||See comment||All New World anthropoids have a dentition formula of {{DentalFormula|upper=2.1.3.3|lower=2.1.3.3}} or {{DentalFormula|upper=2.1.3.2|lower=2.1.3.2}}<ref name=Harris1988p34/>
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| |[[Opossum]]||{{DentalFormula|upper=5.1.3.4|lower=4.1.3.4}}<ref name=WWT>http://www.wildwoodtracking.com/skulls/dentalformulae.html</ref>||<br>
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| |[[Pig]] (deciduous)||{{DentalFormula|upper=di3.dc1.dp4.dm0|lower=di3.dc1.dp4.dm0}}<ref name="provet"/>||<br>
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| |[[Pig]]||{{DentalFormula|upper=3.1.4.3|lower=3.1.4.3}}<ref name="Chunnie"/>||<br>
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| |[[Rabbit]] || {{DentalFormula|upper=2.0.3.3|lower=1.0.2.3}} <ref name=Martin1983p102/> ||<br>
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| | [[Raccoon]] || {{DentalFormula|upper=3.1.4.2|lower=3.1.4.2}} ||<br>
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| |[[Rat]]||{{DentalFormula|upper=1.0.0.3|lower=1.0.0.3}}<ref name="Chunnie"/>||<br>
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| |[[Sheep]] (deciduous)||{{DentalFormula|upper=di0.dc0.dp3.dm0|lower=di4.dc0.dp3.dm0}}<ref name="provet"/>||<br>
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| |[[Sheep]] (permanent)||{{DentalFormula|upper=0.0.3.3|lower=3.1.3.3}}<ref name="WWT"/>||<br>
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| |[[Shrew]]||{{DentalFormula|upper=3.1.3.3|lower=3.1.3.3}}<ref name="Chunnie"/>||
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| |[[Sifaka]]s||See comment||Prosimians. Dental formula disputed. Either {{DentalFormula|upper=2.1.2.3|lower=2.0.2.3}} or {{DentalFormula|upper=2.1.2.3|lower=1.1.2.3}}. Possess dental comb comprising four teeth.<ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&Evolp438/>
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| |[[Slender loris]]<br>[[Slow loris]]||{{DentalFormula|upper=2.1.3.3|lower=2.1.3.3}}||Prosimians. Lower incisors and canines form a dental comb; upper anterior dentition is peg-like and short.<ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&Evolp309/><ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&Evolp371/>
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| |[[Squirrel]]||{{DentalFormula|upper=1.0.2.3|lower=1.0.1.3}}<ref name="Chunnie"/>||<br>
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| |[[Tarsier]]s||{{DentalFormula|upper=2.1.3.3|lower=1.1.3.3}}||Prosimians.<ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&Evolp520/>
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| |[[Vole]] (field)||{{DentalFormula|upper=1.0.0.3|lower=1.0.0.3}}<ref name="Chunnie"/>||<br>
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| |[[Weasel]]||{{DentalFormula|upper=3.1.3.1|lower=3.1.3.2}}<ref name="Chunnie"/>||<br>
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| |}
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| <!-- End of table -->
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| ==Dentition use in archaeology==
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| Dentition, or the study of teeth, is an important area of study for archaeologists, especially those specializing in the study of older remains.<ref name=Weiss&Mann1985p130-135/><ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&EvolArchaeology/> Dentition affords many advantages over studying the rest of the skeleton itself ([[osteometry]]). The structure and arrangement of teeth is constant and, although it is inherited, does not undergo extensive change during environmental change, dietary specializations, or alterations in use patterns. The rest of the skeleton is much more likely to exhibit change because of adaptation. Teeth also preserve better than bone, and so the sample of teeth available to archaeologists is much more extensive and therefore more representative.
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| Dentition is particularly useful in tracking ancient populations' movements, because, although all humans have the same basic 32 teeth, there are subtle differences in the shapes of incisors, the number of grooves on molars, and extra cusps on particular teeth. These differences can not only be associated with different populations across space, but also change over time so that the study of the characteristics of teeth could say which population one is dealing with, and at what point in that population's history they are.
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| ==See also==
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| {{Portal|Dentistry}}
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| *[[Odontometrics]]
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| *[[Phalangeal formula]]
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| ===Dentition discussions in other articles===
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| Some articles have helpful discussions on dentition, which will be listed as identified.
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| *[[Lemur#Dentition|Lemur]]
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| ==Notes==
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| <div class="references-small">
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| '''a.''' {{Note_label|a|a|none}} Unless otherwise stated, the formulae can be assumed to be for adult, or permanent dentition.
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| '''b.''' {{Note_label|b|b|none}} Regarding horse dentition, Pence gives erroneous upper and lower figures of 40 to 44 for the dental range.<ref name=Pence2002/> It is not possible to arrive at this range from the figures she provides. The figures from Cirelli<ref name=Cirelli/> and Ultimate Ungulates<ref name=UltimateUnqulate/> are more reliable, although there is a self-evident error for Cirelli's calculation of the upper female range of 40, which is not possible from the figures he provides. One can only arrive at an upper figure of 38 without canines, which for females Cirelli shows as 0/0. It appears canines do sometimes appear in females, hence the sentence in Ultimate Ungulates that canines are "usually present only in males",<ref name=UltimateUnqulate/> However, Pence's and Cirelli's references are clearly otherwise useful, hence the inclusion, but with the caveat of this footnote.
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| </div>
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| ==References==
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| {{reflist|2|refs=
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| <ref name=Harris1988p34>{{citation |year=1988 |author=[[Marvin Harris]] |title=Culture, People, Nature: An Introduction to General Anthropology |edition=5th |place=New York |publisher=Harper & Row |isbn=978-0-06-042697-2}}</ref>
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| <ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&EvolArchaeology>Larry L Mai; Marcus Young Owl; M Patricia Kersting (2005). The utility of dental formulae in species identification is indicated throughout this dictionary. Dental formulae are noted for many species, both extant and extinct, and where unknown (in some extinct species) this is noted.</ref>
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| <ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&EvolAye-aye>Larry L Mai; Marcus Young Owl; M Patricia Kersting (2005), pp.134,139.</ref>
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| <ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&EvolDentalEruption>Larry L Mai; Marcus Young Owl; M Patricia Kersting (2005), p.139. See section on dental eruption sequence, where numbering used is per this text.</ref>
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| <ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&EvolDentalFormula>Larry L Mai; Marcus Young Owl; M Patricia Kersting (2005), p.139</ref> | |
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| <ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&Evolp135>{{citation|year=2005 |author=Larry L Mai; Marcus Young Owl; M Patricia Kersting |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Human Biology and Evolution |page=135 |place=Cambridge & New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-66486-8}}
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| </ref>
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| <ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&Evolp177>Larry L Mai; Marcus Young Owl; M Patricia Kersting (2005), p.177</ref>
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| <ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&Evolp267>Larry L Mai; Marcus Young Owl; M Patricia Kersting (2005), p.267</ref>
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| <ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&Evolp300>Larry L Mai; Marcus Young Owl; M Patricia Kersting (2005), p.300</ref>
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| <ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&Evolp309>Larry L Mai; Marcus Young Owl; M Patricia Kersting (2005), p.309</ref> | |
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| <ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&Evolp335>Larry L Mai; Marcus Young Owl; M Patricia Kersting (2005), p.335</ref>
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| <ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&Evolp340>Larry L Mai; Marcus Young Owl; M Patricia Kersting (2005), p.340</ref>
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| <ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&Evolp371>Larry L Mai; Marcus Young Owl; M Patricia Kersting (2005), p.371</ref>
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| <ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&Evolp438>Larry L Mai; Marcus Young Owl; M Patricia Kersting (2005), p.438</ref>
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| <ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol.26Evolp520>Larry L Mai; Marcus Young Owl; M Patricia Kersting (2005), p.520</ref>
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| <ref name=CambridgeDictHumBiol&Evolp550>Larry L Mai; Marcus Young Owl; M Patricia Kersting (2005), p.550</ref>
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| <ref name=Cirelli>{{citation |date= |author=Al Cirelli |title=Equine Dentition |place=Nevada |publisher=University of Nevada |url=http://www.unce.unr.edu/publications/files/ag/2000/sp0008.pdf |accessdate=7 June 2010}}</ref>
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| <ref name=Freeman&Genoways>{{citation |date=December 1998 |author=Freeman, Patricia W., & Genoways, Hugh H |title=Recent Northern Records of the Nine-banded Armadillo (Dasypodidae) in Nebraska |journal=The Southwestern Naturalist |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=491–504 |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1012&context=museummammalogy |accessdate=7 June 2010}}</ref>
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| <ref name=Martin1983p102>E.A. Martin (1983), p.102</ref>
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| <ref name=Martin1983p103>{{citation |year=1983 |author=E.A. Martin |title=Macmillan Dictionary of Life Sciences |edition=2nd revised |place=London |publisher=Macmillan Press |page=103 |isbn=0-333-34867-2}}</ref>
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| <ref name=Pence2002>{{citation |year=2002 |author=Patricia Pence |title=Equine Dentistry: A Practical Guide |place=Baltimore |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |page=7 |isbn=0-683-30403-8 |url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=o4KVGceXBNIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Equine+dentistry%22&cd=1#v=onepage&q&f=false }}</ref>
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| <ref name="ShorterOEDp646">{{citation | year=2007 | edition=6th | title=[[Shorter Oxford English Dictionary]]| editor=Angus Stevenson |chapter=Dentition definition |volume=1: A-M| publisher=Oxford University Press| location=Oxford|page=646|isbn=978-0-19-920687-2}}</ref>
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| <ref name=Swindler2002>{{citation |year=2002 |author=Daris R. Swindler |authorlink=Daris Swindler |chapter=Chapter 1: Introduction (pp.1-11) and Chapter 2: Dental anatomy (pp.12-20). |title=Primate Dentition: An Introduction to the Teeth of Non-human Primates |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=11 |url=http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam031/2001037356.pdf |isbn=0-521-65289-8}}</ref>
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| <ref name=UltimateUnqulate>{{citation |date= |title=Family Equidae: Horses, asses, and zebras |publisher=Ultimate Unqulate.com|url=http://www.ultimateungulate.com/Perissodactyla/Equidae.html |accessdate=7 June 2010}}</ref>
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| <ref name=Weiss&Mann1985pp130-131>{{citation|year=1985 |author=Weiss, M.L., & Mann, A.E |title= 'Human Biology and Behaviour: An anthropological perspective |edition=4th |place= Boston |publisher= Little Brown |pages=130–131 |isbn=0-673-39013-6}}</ref> | |
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| <ref name=Weiss&Mann1985p130-135>Weiss, M.L., & Mann, A.E (1985), p.130-135.</ref>
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| <ref name=Weiss&Mann1985p132-135>Weiss, M.L., & Mann, A.E (1985), p.132-135.</ref>
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| <ref name=Weiss&Mann1985p134>Weiss, M.L., & Mann, A.E (1985), p.134.</ref>
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| }}
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| Adovasio, J. M. and David Pedler. "The Peopling of North America." North American Archaeology. Blackwell Publishing, 2005. p. 35–36.
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| ==Further reading==
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| *{{citation |year=2002 |author=Daris R. Swindler |authorlink=Daris Swindler |chapter=Chapter 1: Introduction (pp.1-11) and Chapter 2: Dental anatomy (pp.12-20). |title=Primate Dentition: An Introduction to the Teeth of Non-human Primates |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam031/2001037356.pdf |isbn=0-521-65289-8}} [http://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Nu1j1EnKbscC&oi=fnd&pg=PP15&dq=%22primate+dentition%22&ots=SAyZgpFvG_&sig=oSlxJFPqJQMjW0kuYCMRzQlD-SI#v=onepage&q&f=false See also preview pages in Google books]
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| *{{citation |year=2007 |author=Feldhamer, George A., Lee C. Drickhamer, Stephen H. Vessey, Joseph F. Merritt, Carey Krajewski |chapter=4: Evolution and Dental Characteristics |title=Mammalogy: Adaptation, Diversity, Ecology |pages=48–67 |place=Baltimore, Maryland |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8018-8695-9 |url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=udCnKce9hfoC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Mammalogy#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=7 June 2010 }} (link provided to title page to give reader choice of scrolling straight to relevant chapter or perusing other material).
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| == External links ==
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| {{Commons category}}
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| * [http://arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/digestion/pregastric/dentalanat.html Colorado State's Dental Anatomy Page]
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| * [http://www.geocities.ws/chunniemonster/adultsandbabies.html For image of skulls and more information on dental formula of mammals.]
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| {{Tooth development}}
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| [[Category:Mammal anatomy]]
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| [[Category:Teeth]]
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| [[de:Gebiss]]
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| [[pl:Wzór zębowy]]
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