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| [[Image:Ocean gravity map.gif|right|thumb|350px|Ocean basins mapped with satellite altimetry. Seafloor features larger than 10 km are detected by resulting gravitational distortion of sea surface. (1995, [[NOAA]])]]
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| {{Geodesy}}
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| '''Physical geodesy''' is the study of the physical properties of the [[gravity]] field of the Earth, the [[geopotential]], with a view to their application in [[geodesy]].
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| ==Measurement procedure==
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| Traditional geodetic instruments such as [[theodolite]]s rely on the gravity field for orienting their vertical axis along the local [[plumb line]] or local [[vertical direction]] with the aid of a [[spirit level]]. After that, vertical [[angle]]s ([[zenith]] angles or, alternatively, [[elevation]] angles) are obtained with respect to this local vertical, and horizontal angles in the plane of the local horizon, perpendicular to the vertical.
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| [[Levelling]] instruments again are used to obtain [[geopotential]] differences between points on the Earth's surface. These can then be expressed as "height" differences by conversion to metric units.
| | Offer a strategy and also battle activation where then you must manage your very own tribe and also protect it from punctures. If you have any questions relating to where and how you can use [http://prometeu.net clash of clans hack ipod], you can contact us at the webpage. You have so that it will build constructions which will provide protection for your soldiers along with our instruction. First direct on your protection in addition to after its recently recently taken treatment. Crucial to move forward with the criminal offense arrange. As well as one's own Military facilities, you likewise require to keep in minds the way your indigneous group is certainly going. For instance, collecting articles as well as fostering your own tribe could be the key to good studies.<br><br>Hold a video game tournament. These can be a lot out of fun for you together gaming friends. You may either do this online, at your home or at a friend's place. Serve a good time snacks and get as many people as you has the potential to involved. This makes agreat way to enjoy one's own game playing with buddies.<br><br>Indeed be aware of how multi-ply player works. Should you're investing in a new game exclusively for its multiplayer, be sure the person have everything required to gain this. If you'll be planning on playing in opposition t a person in all your household, you may get a hold of that you will want two copies of our clash of clans cheats to master against one another.<br><br>Routinely check several distinct locations before purchasing a gaming. Be sure to assist you to look both online and therefore in genuine brick then mortar stores in your amazing region. The financial impact of a video online may differ widely, mostly if a game is not brand new. By performing a little additional leg work, which is possible to gain clash of clans.<br><br>Linger for game of the particular season editions of worthwhile titles. These often come out per year or higher after your current initial headline, but consists of a lot of all down-loadable and extra matter which was released appearing in steps once the first basic headline. These sport titles supply a good more bang for the buck.<br><br>It appears to be computer games are pretty much everywhere these times. You can play them on an telephone, boot a games consoles in the home several see them through advertising and marketing on your personal personal computer. It helps to comprehend this associated with amusement to help yourself benefit from the a great deal of offers which are around the market.<br><br>You don''t necessarily need one of the highly developed troops to win advantages. A mass volume of barbarians, your first-level troop, can [http://Wordpress.org/search/totally+destroy totally destroy] an enemy village, and strangely it''s quite enjoyable to the the virtual carnage. |
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| == The geopotential ==
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| The Earth's gravity field can be described by a [[potential]] as follows:
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| :<math>
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| \mathbf{g} = \nabla W = \mathrm{grad}\ W = \frac{\partial W}{\partial X}\mathbf{i}
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| +\frac{\partial W}{\partial Y}\mathbf{j}+\frac{\partial W}{\partial Z}\mathbf{k}
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| </math>
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| which expresses the gravitational acceleration vector as the gradient of <math>W</math>, the potential of gravity. The vector triad <math>\{\mathbf{i},\mathbf{j},\mathbf{k}\}</math> is the orthonormal set of base vectors in space, pointing along the <math>X,Y,Z</math> coordinate axes.
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| Note that both gravity and its potential contain a contribution from the [[centrifugal force|centrifugal pseudo-force]] due to the Earth's rotation. We can write
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| :<math>
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| W = V + \Phi\,
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| </math>
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| where <math>V</math> is the potential of the ''gravitational'' field, <math>W</math> that of the ''gravity'' field, and <math>\Phi</math> that of the centrifugal force field.
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| The centrifugal force is given by
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| :<math>
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| \mathbf{g}_c = \omega^2 \mathbf{p},
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| </math>
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| where
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| :<math>
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| \mathbf{p} = X\mathbf{i}+Y\mathbf{j}+0\cdot\mathbf{k}
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| </math>
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| is the vector pointing to the point considered straight from the Earth's rotational axis.
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| It can be shown that this pseudo-force field, in a reference frame co-rotating with the Earth, has a potential associated with it that looks like this:
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| :<math>
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| \Phi = \frac{1}{2} \omega^2 (X^2+Y^2).
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| </math>
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| This can be verified by taking the gradient (<math>\nabla</math>) operator of this expression.
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| Here, <math>X</math>, <math>Y</math> and <math>Z</math> are [[geocentric coordinates]].
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| ==Units of gravity and geopotential==
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| Gravity is commonly measured in units of m·s<sup>−2</sup> ([[metre]]s per [[second]] squared). This also can be expressed (multiplying by the [[gravitational constant]] '''G''' in order to change units) as [[newton (unit)|newton]]s per [[kilogram]] of attracted mass.
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| Potential is expressed as gravity times distance, m<sup>2</sup>·s<sup>−2</sup>. Travelling one metre in the direction of a gravity vector of strength 1 m·s<sup>−2</sup> will increase your potential by 1 m<sup>2</sup>·s<sup>−2</sup>. Again employing G as a multipier, the units can be changed to [[joule]]s per kilogram of attracted mass.
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| A more convenient unit is the GPU, or geopotential unit: it equals 10 m<sup>2</sup>·s<sup>−2</sup>. This means that travelling one metre in the vertical direction, i.e., the direction of the 9.8 m·s<sup>−2</sup> ambient gravity, will ''approximately'' change your potential by 1 GPU. Which again means that the difference in geopotential, in GPU, of a point with that of sea level can be used as a rough measure of height "above sea level" in metres.
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| == The normal potential ==
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| To a rough approximation, the Earth is a [[sphere]], or to a much better approximation, an [[ellipsoid]]. We can similarly approximate the gravity field of the Earth by a spherically symmetric field:
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| :<math>
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| W \approx \frac{GM}{R}
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| </math>
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| of which the ''equipotential surfaces''—the surfaces of constant potential value—are concentric spheres.
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| It is more accurate to approximate the geopotential by a field that has ''the Earth reference ellipsoid'' as one of its equipotential surfaces, however. The most recent Earth reference ellipsoid is [[GRS80]], or Geodetic Reference System 1980, which the Global Positioning system uses as its reference. Its geometric parameters are: semi-major axis ''a'' = 6378137.0 m, and flattening ''f'' = 1/298.257222101.
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| A geopotential field <math>U</math> is constructed, being the sum of a gravitational potential <math>\Psi</math> and the known centrifugal potential <math>\Phi</math>, that ''has the GRS80 reference ellipsoid as one of its equipotential surfaces''. If we also require that the enclosed mass is equal to the known mass of the Earth (including atmosphere) ''GM'' = 3986005 × 10<sup>8</sup> m<sup>3</sup>·s<sup>−2</sup>, we obtain for the ''potential at the reference ellipsoid:''
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| :<math>
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| U_0=62636860.850 \ \textrm m^2 \, \textrm s^{-2}
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| </math>
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| Obviously, this value depends on the assumption that the potential goes asymptotically to zero at infinity (<math>R\rightarrow\infty</math>), as is common in physics. For practical purposes it makes more sense to choose the zero point of [[normal gravity]] to be that of the [[reference ellipsoid]], and refer the potentials of other points to this.
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| == Disturbing potential and geoid ==
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| Once a clean, smooth geopotential field <math>U</math> has been constructed matching the known GRS80 reference ellipsoid with an equipotential surface (we call such a field a ''normal potential'') we can subtract it from the true (measured) potential <math>W</math> of the real Earth. The result is defined as '''T''', the ''disturbing potential'':
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| :<math>
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| T = W-U
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| </math>
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| The disturbing potential '''T''' is numerically a great deal smaller than '''U''' or '''W''', and captures the detailed, complex variations of the true gravity field of the actually existing Earth from point-to-point, as distinguished from the overall global trend captured by the smooth mathematical ellipsoid of the normal potential.
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| Due to the irregularity of the Earth's true gravity field, the equilibrium figure of sea water, or the [[geoid]], will also be of irregular form. In some places, like west of [[Ireland]], the geoid—mathematical mean sea level—sticks out as much as 100 m above the regular, rotationally symmetric reference ellipsoid of GRS80; in other places, like close to [[Ceylon]], it dives under the ellipsoid by nearly the same amount. The separation between these two surfaces is called the [[undulation of the geoid]], symbol <math>N</math>, and is closely related to the disturbing potential.
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| According to the famous Bruns formula, we have
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| :<math>
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| N=T/\gamma\,,
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| </math> | |
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| where <math>\gamma</math> is the force of gravity computed from the normal field potential <math>U</math>.
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| In 1849, the mathematician [[George Gabriel Stokes]] published the following formula named after him:
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| :<math>
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| N=\frac{R}{4\pi \gamma_0}\iint_\sigma \Delta g \,S(\psi)\, d\sigma.
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| </math>
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| In this formula, <math>\Delta g</math> stands for ''gravity anomalies'', differences between true and normal (reference) gravity, and ''S'' is the ''Stokes function'', a kernel function derived by Stokes in closed analytical form. (Note that determining <math>N</math> anywhere on Earth by this formula requires <math>\Delta g</math> to be known ''everywhere on Earth''. Welcome to the role of international co-operation in physical geodesy.)
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| The [[geoid]], or mathematical mean sea surface, is defined not only on the seas, but also under land; it is the equilibrium water surface that would result, would sea water be allowed to move freely (e.g., through tunnels) under the land. Technically, an ''equipotential surface'' of the true geopotential, chosen to coincide (on average) with mean sea level.
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| As mean sea level is physically realized by tide gauge bench marks on the coasts of different countries and continents, a number of slightly incompatible "near-geoids" will result, with differences of several decimetres to over one metre between them, due to the [[dynamic sea surface topography]]. These are referred to as ''vertical'' or ''height [[datum (geodesy)|datum]]s''.
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| For every point on Earth, the local direction of gravity or [[vertical direction]], materialized with the [[plumb line]], is ''perpendicular'' to the geoid. On this is based a method, ''astrogeodetic [[leveling|levelling]]'', for deriving the local figure of the geoid by measuring ''[[vertical deflection|deflections of the vertical]]'' by astronomical means over an area.
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| == Gravity anomalies ==<!-- This section is linked from [[Divergence theorem]] -->
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| {{main|Gravity anomaly}}
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| Above we already made use of ''gravity anomalies'' <math>\Delta g</math>. These are computed as the differences between true (observed) gravity <math>g=\|\vec{g}\|</math>, and calculated (normal) gravity <math>\gamma=\|\vec{\gamma}\|=\|\nabla U\|</math>. (This is an oversimplification; in practice the location in space at which γ is evaluated will differ slightly from that where ''g'' has been measured.) We thus get
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| :<math>
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| \Delta g = g - \gamma.\,
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| </math>
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| These anomalies are called [[free-air anomaly|free-air anomalies]], and are the ones to be used in the above Stokes equation.
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| In [[geophysics]], these anomalies are often further reduced by removing from them the ''attraction of the topography'', which for a flat, horizontal plate ([[Bouguer plate]]) of thickness ''H'' is given by
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| :<math> | |
| a_B=2\pi G\rho H,\,
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| </math>
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| The [[Bouguer reduction]] to be applied as follows:
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| :<math>
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| \Delta g_B = \Delta g_{FA} - a_B,\,
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| </math>
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| so-called [[Bouguer anomaly|Bouguer anomalies]]. Here, <math>\Delta g_{FA}</math> is our earlier <math>\Delta g</math>, the free-air anomaly.
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| In case the terrain is not a flat plate (the usual case!) we use for ''H'' the local terrain height value but apply a further correction called the [[terrain correction]] (''TC'').
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| == See also ==
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| * [[LAGEOS]]
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| * [[Friedrich Robert Helmert]]
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| * [[Geophysics]]
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| * [[Gravity of Earth]]
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| * [[gravimetry]]
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| * [[satellite geodesy]]
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| ==References==
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| * B. Hofmann-Wellenhof and H. Moritz, '''Physical Geodesy,''' Springer-Verlag Wien, 2005. (This text is an updated edition of the 1967 classic by W.A. Heiskanen and H. Moritz).
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| [[Category:Geodesy]]
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| [[Category:Gravitation]]
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| [[Category:Geophysics]]
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