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In [[mathematics]], an [[integral polytope]] has an associated '''Ehrhart polynomial''' that encodes the relationship between the volume of a polytope and the number of [[integer point]]s the polytope contains. The theory of Ehrhart polynomials can be seen as a higher-dimensional generalization of [[Pick's theorem]] in the [[Euclidean plane]].
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These polynomials are named after [[Eugène Ehrhart]] who studied them in the 1960s.
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==Definition==
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Informally, if ''P'' is a [[polytope]], and ''tP'' is the polytope formed by expanding ''P'' by a factor of ''t'' in each dimension, then ''L''(''P'', ''t'') is the number of [[integer lattice]] points in ''tP''.


More formally, consider a [[lattice (group)|lattice]] ''L'' in [[Euclidean space]] '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup> and a ''d''-[[dimension]]al polytope ''P'' in '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup>, and assume that all the vertices of the polytope are points of the lattice. (A common example is ''L'' = '''Z'''<sup>''n''</sup> and a polytope with all its vertex coordinates being [[integer]]s.) For any positive integer ''t'', let ''tP'' be the ''t''-fold dilation of ''P'' (the polytope formed by multiplying each vertex coordinate, in a basis for the lattice, by a factor of ''t''), and let
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: <math>L(P,t) = \#(tP \cap L)\,</math>
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be the number of lattice points contained in ''tP''. Ehrhart showed in 1962 that ''L'' is a rational [[polynomial]] of degree ''d'' in ''t'', i.e. there exist [[rational number]]s ''a''<sub>0</sub>,...,''a''<sub>''d''</sub> such that:
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:''L''(''P'', ''t'') = ''a''<sub>''d''</sub>''t''<sup>''d''</sup> + ''a''<sub>''d''&minus;1</sub>''t''<sup>''d''&minus;1</sup> + … + ''a''<sub>0</sub> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; for all positive integers ''t''.
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The Ehrhart polynomial of the [[interior (topology)|interior]] of a closed convex polytope ''P'' can be computed as:
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:''L''(int ''P'', ''t'') = (&minus;1)<sup>''d''</sup> ''L''(''P'', &minus;''t''),
 
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[[File:Second dilate of a unit square.png|thumbnail|This is the second dilate, ''t = 2'', of a unit square. It has nine integer points.]]
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==Examples of Ehrhart Polynomials==
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Let ''P'' be a ''d''-dimensional [[unit cube|unit]] [[hypercube]] whose vertices are the integer lattice points all of whose coordinates are 0 or 1. In terms of inequalities,
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: <math> P = \{x\in\mathbb{R}^d : 0 \le x_i \le 1; 1 \le i \le d\} </math>.
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Then the ''t''-fold dilation of ''P'' is a cube with side length ''t'', containing (''t''&nbsp;+&nbsp;1)<sup>''d''</sup> integer points. That is, the Ehrhart polynomial of the hypercube is ''L''(''P'',''t'')&nbsp;=&nbsp;(''t''&nbsp;+&nbsp;1)<sup>''d''</sup>.<ref>{{harvtxt|De Loera|Rambau|Santos|2010}}</ref><ref>{{harvtxt|Mathar|2010}}</ref> Additionally, if we evaluate ''L(P, t)'' at negative integers, then
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: <math>L(P, -t) = (-1)^d (t - 1)^d = (-1)^d L(\text{int}(P), t), </math>
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as we would expect from Ehrhart-Macdonald reciprocity.
 
Many other [[figurate number]]s can be expressed as Ehrhart polynomials. For instance, the [[square pyramidal number]]s are given by the Ehrhart polynomials of a [[square pyramid]] with an integer unit square as its base and with height one; the Ehrhart polynomial in this case is (''t''&nbsp;+&nbsp;1)(''t''&nbsp;+&nbsp;2)(2''t''&nbsp;+&nbsp;3)/6.<ref>{{harvtxt|Beck|De Loera|Develin|Pfeifle|Stanley|2005}}.</ref>
 
==Ehrhart Quasi-Polynomials==
 
Let <math> P </math> be a rational polytope. In other words, suppose
 
: <math>P = \{ x\in\mathbb{Z}^d : Ax \le b\}</math>,
 
where <math>A\in\mathbb{R}^{k\times d}</math> and <math>b\in\mathbb{Z}^k</math>. (Equivalently, <math> P </math> is the [[convex hull]] of finitely many points in <math> \mathbb{Q}^d </math>.) Then define
 
: <math> L(P, t) = \#(\{x\in\mathbb{Z}^n : Ax \ge tb\}). </math>
 
In this case, ''L(P, t)'' is a [[quasi-polynomial]] in ''t''. Just as with integral polytopes, Ehrhart-Macdonald reciprocity holds, that is,
 
: <math> L(int P, t) = (-1)^n L(P, -t). </math>
 
==Examples of Ehrhart Quasi-Polynomials==
 
Let ''P'' be a polygon with vertices ''(0,0)'', ''(0,2)'', ''(1,1)'' and ''(0,3/2)''. The number of integer points in ''tP'' will be counted by the quasi-polynomial <ref name=MR2271992>{{cite book|title=Computing the Continuous Discretely|year=2007|publisher=Springer|location=New York|pages=46–47|author=Beck, Matthias|coauthors=Robins, Sinai}}</ref>
 
<math> L(P, t) = \frac{7}{4}t^2 + \frac{5}{2}t + \frac{7 + (-1)^t}{8}. </math>
 
==Interpretation of coefficients==
If ''P'' is [[closed set|closed]] (i.e. the boundary faces belong to ''P''), some of the coefficients of ''L''(''P'', ''t'') have an easy interpretation:
* the leading coefficient, ''a''<sub>''d''</sub>, is equal to the  ''d''-dimensional [[volume]] of ''P'', divided by ''d''(''L'') (see [[lattice (group)|lattice]] for an explanation of the content or covolume ''d''(''L'') of a lattice);
* the second coefficient, ''a''<sub>''d''&minus;1</sub>, can be computed as follows: the lattice ''L'' induces a lattice ''L<sub>F</sub>'' on any face ''F'' of ''P''; take the (''d''&minus;1)-dimensional volume of ''F'', divide by 2''d''(''L<sub>F</sub>''), and add those numbers for all faces of ''P'';
* the constant coefficient ''a''<sub>0</sub> is the [[Euler characteristic]] of ''P''.  When ''P'' is a closed convex polytope, ''a''<sub>0</sub>&nbsp;=&nbsp;1.
 
==Ehrhart Series==
 
We can define a [[generating function]] for the Ehrhart polynomial of an integral n-dimensional polytope ''P'' as
 
<math> Ehr_P(z) = \sum_{t\ge 0} L(P, t)z^t </math>.
 
This series can be expressed as a [[rational function]]. Specifically, Ehrhart proved (1962) that there exist complex numbers <math> h_i^\ast </math>, <math> 0 \le j \le n </math>, such that the Ehrhart series of ''P'' is
 
<math> Ehr_P(z) = \frac{\sum_{j=0}^d h_j^\ast z^j}{(1 - z)^{n + 1}}, </math>
 
with <math> \sum_{j=0}^d h_j^\ast \neq 0 </math>. Additionally, Stanley's non-negativity theorem states that under the given hypotheses, <math> h_i^\ast </math> will be non-negative integers, for <math> 0 \le j \le n. </math>
 
==See also==
The case ''n''&nbsp;=&nbsp;''d''&nbsp;=&nbsp;2 and ''t''&nbsp;=&nbsp;1 of these statements yields [[Pick's theorem]]. Formulas for the other coefficients are much harder to get; [[Todd class]]es of [[toric variety|toric varieties]], the [[Riemann–Roch theorem]] as well as [[Fourier analysis]] have been used for this purpose.
 
If ''X'' is the [[toric variety]] corresponding to the normal fan of ''P'', then ''P'' defines an [[ample line bundle]] on ''X'', and the Ehrhart polynomial of ''P'' coincides with the [[Hilbert polynomial]] of this line bundle.
 
Ehrhart polynomials can be studied for their own sake. For instance, one could ask questions related to the roots of an Ehrhart polynomial.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Braun|first=Benjamin|coauthors=Develin, Mike|title=Ehrhart Polynomial Roots and Stanley's Non-Negativity Theorem|journal=American Mathematical Society|year=2008|volume=452|series=Contemporary Mathematics|pages=67–78|doi=10.1090/conm/452/08773}}</ref> Furthermore, some authors have pursued the question of how these polynomials could be classified.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Higashitani|first=Akihiro|title=Classification of Ehrhart Polynomials of Integral Simplices|journal=DMTCS Proceedings|year=2012|pages=587–594|url=http://www.math.nagoya-u.ac.jp/fpsac12/download/contributed/dmAR0152.pdf}}</ref>
 
==Generalizations==
 
It is possible to study the number of integer points in a polytope ''P'' if we dilate some facets of ''P'' but not others. In other words, one would like to know the number of integer points in semi-dilated polytopes. It turns out that such a counting function will be what is called a multivariate quasi-polynomial. An Ehrhart-type reciprocity theorem will also hold for such a counting function.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Beck|first=Matthias|title=Multidimensional Ehrhart reciprocity|journal=Journal of Combinatorial Theory|date=January 2002|volume=97|series=Series A|issue=1|pages=187–194|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0097316501932200|doi=10.1006/jcta.2001.3220}}</ref>
 
Counting the number of integer points in semi-dilations of polytopes has applications <ref>{{cite journal|last=Lisonek|first=Petr|title=Combinatorial Families Enumerated by Quasi-polynomials|journal=Journal of Combinatorial Theory|year=2007|volume=114|series=Series A|issue=4|pages=619–630|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0097316506001427|doi=10.1016/j.jcta.2006.06.013}}</ref> in enumerating the number of different dissections of regular polygons and the number of non-isomorphic unrestricted codes, a particular kind of code in the field of [[coding theory]].
 
== See also ==
* [[Quasi-polynomial]]
 
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
 
== References ==
*{{citation
| last1 = Beck | first1 = M.
| last2 = De Loera | first2 = J. A.
| last3 = Develin | first3 = M.
| last4 = Pfeifle | first4 = J.
| last5 = Stanley | first5 = R. P. | author5-link = Richard P. Stanley
| contribution = Coefficients and roots of Ehrhart polynomials
| location = Providence, RI
| mr = 2134759
| pages = 15–36
| publisher = Amer. Math. Soc.
| series = Contemp. Math.
| title = Integer points in polyhedra—geometry, number theory, algebra, optimization
| volume = 374
| year = 2005}}.
*{{citation
| last1 = Beck | first1 = Matthias
| last2 = Robins | first2 = Sinai
| mr = 2271992
| isbn = 978-0-387-29139-0
| location = New York
| publisher = Springer-Verlag
| series = Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics
| title = Computing the Continuous Discretely, Integer-point enumeration in polyhedra
| year = 2007}}.
*{{citation|title=Triangulations: Structures for Algorithms and Applications|volume=25|series=Algorithms and Computation in Mathematics|first1=Jesús A.|last1=De Loera|first2=Jörg|last2=Rambau|first3=Francisco|last3=Santos|publisher=Springer|year=2010|isbn=978-3-642-12970-4|contribution=9.3.3 Ehrhart polynomials and unimodular triangulations|page=475|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=SxY1Xrr12DwC&pg=PA475&lpg=PA475}}.
*{{citation
| last1 = Diaz | first1 = Ricardo
| last2 = Robins | first2 = Sinai
| journal = Electronic Research Announcements of the American Mathematical Society
| pages = 1–6
| title = The Ehrhart polynomial of a lattice ''n''-simplex
| url = http://www.ams.org/era/1996-02-01/S1079-6762-96-00001-7/home.html
| volume = 2
| year = 1996
| doi = 10.1090/S1079-6762-96-00001-7}}. Introduces the Fourier analysis approach and gives references to other related articles.
*{{citation
| last = Ehrhart | first = Eugène
| journal = [[Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences|C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris]]
| pages = 616–618
| title = Sur les polyèdres rationnels homothétiques à ''n'' dimensions
| volume = 254
| year = 1962}}. Definition and first properties.
*{{cite arXiv
|first1=Richard J.
|last1=Mathar
|eprint=1002.3844
|title=Point counts of D<sub>k</sub> and some A<sub>k</sub> and E<sub>k</sub> integer lattices inside hypercubes
|year=2010
}}
*{{citation
| last = Mustaţă | first = Mircea
| contribution = Chapter 13: Ehrhart polynomials
| date = February 2005
| title = Lecture notes on toric varieties
| url = http://www.math.lsa.umich.edu/~mmustata/toric_var.html}}.
 
[[Category:Figurate numbers]]
[[Category:Polynomials]]
[[Category:Lattice points]]
[[Category:Polytopes]]

Revision as of 08:52, 7 February 2014

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