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| [[File:NaS battery.png|right|thumb|Cut-away schematic diagram of a sodium–sulfur battery. (image courtesy NASA John Glenn Research Center).]]
| | Emilia Shryock is my name but you can contact me anything you like. My day job is a meter reader. One of the issues she enjoys most is to do aerobics and now she is trying to make cash with it. California is where I've always been living and I adore each day residing here.<br><br>Feel free to visit my web page - [http://boomerangfoundation.org/%5Brealname%5D/project/use-efficient-natural-remedies-liver-illnesses over the counter std test] |
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| A '''sodium–sulfur battery'''<ref>
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| {{cite journal
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| | journal = Design News
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| | title = title unknown
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| | author =
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| | volume = 63
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| | issue =
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| | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=yHVLAQAAIAAJ&q=%22liquid-metal-battery%22&dq=%22liquid-metal-battery%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=_B_0TpTsNe202AXlsNCNAg&ved=0CEQQ6AEwAA
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| }}</ref>
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| is a type of [[Molten salt battery|molten-salt]] [[battery (electricity)|battery]]<ref name="Bland">{{cite news|first=Eric |last=Bland |url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/29900981/ |title=Pourable batteries could store green power |work=MSNBC |agency=Discovery News |date=2009-03-26 |accessdate=2010-04-12}}</ref> constructed from liquid [[sodium]] (Na) and [[sulfur]] (S). This type of battery has a high [[energy density]], high efficiency of charge/discharge (89–92%) and [[charge cycle|long cycle life]], and is fabricated from inexpensive materials. However, because of the operating temperatures of 300 to 350 °C and the highly [[corrosion|corrosive]] nature of the [[sodium polysulfides]], such cells are primarily suitable for large-scale non-mobile applications such as [[grid energy storage]]. | |
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| == Construction ==
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| Typical batteries have a solid [[electrolyte]] membrane between the [[anode]] and [[cathode]], compared with liquid-metal batteries where the anode, the cathode, and also the membrane are liquids.<ref name="Bland"/>
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| The [[electrochemical cell|cell]] is usually made in a tall cylindrical configuration. The entire cell is enclosed by a steel casing that is protected, usually by [[chromium]] and [[molybdenum]], from being corroded on the inside. This outside container serves as the positive electrode, while the liquid sodium serves as the negative electrode. The container is sealed at the top with an airtight [[alumina]] lid. An essential part of the cell is the presence of a BASE ([[beta-alumina solid electrolyte]]) membrane, which selectively conducts Na<sup>+</sup>. The cell becomes more economical with increasing size. In commercial applications the cells are arranged in blocks for better conservation of heat and are encased in a vacuum-insulated box.
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| == Operation ==
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| During the discharge phase, [[molten]] [[Chemical element|elemental]] sodium at the core serves as the [[anode]], meaning that the [[sodium|Na]] donates electrons to the external circuit. The sodium is separated by a [[beta-alumina solid electrolyte]] (BASE) cylinder from the container of molten sulfur, which is fabricated from an [[inert]] metal serving as the [[cathode]]. The sulfur is absorbed in a [[carbon]] sponge. BASE is a good conductor of sodium [[ion]]s, but a poor conductor of electrons, and thus avoids self-discharge. When sodium gives off an [[electron]], the Na<sup>+</sup> ion migrates to the sulfur container. The electron drives an electric current through the molten sodium to the contact, through the electrical load and back to the sulfur container. Here, another electron reacts with sulfur to form S<sub>n</sub><sup>2−</sup>, sodium [[polysulfide]]. The discharge process can be represented as follows:
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| <math>2\mathrm{Na} + 4\mathrm{S} \rightarrow \mathrm{Na_2S_4} \qquad\qquad E_{cell} \sim 2\mathrm{V}</math>
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| As the cell discharges, the sodium level drops. During the charging phase the reverse process takes place. Once running, the heat produced by charging and discharging cycles is sufficient to maintain operating temperatures and usually no external source is required.<ref>Taku Oshima, Masaharu Kajita, Akiyasu Okuno "Development of Sodium–Sulfur Batteries" International Journal of Applied Ceramic Technology Volume 1, Pages 269-276, 2004. {{doi|10.1111/j.1744-7402.2004.tb00179.x}}</ref>
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| ==Safety aspects==
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| Pure [[sodium]] presents a hazard because it spontaneously burns in contact with air and moisture, thus the system must be protected from water and oxidizing atmospheres.
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| ===2011 Tsukuba Plant fire incident===
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| On September 21, 2011, [[NGK Insulators|NGK]]-manufactured NaS batteries for storing electricity installed at the [[Tsukuba, Japan]], plant caught fire. Following the incident, NGK temporarily suspended production of NaS batteries.<ref>http://www.ngk.co.jp/english/announce/111031_nas.html</ref>
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| ==Difficulties==
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| Corrosion of the insulators was found to be a problem in the harsh chemical environment as they gradually became conductive and the self-discharge rate increased. [[Dendrite (metal)|Dendritic]]-sodium growth can also be a problem.
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| ==Development==
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| ===USA===
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| [[Ford Motor]] pioneered the [[Battery (electricity)|battery]] in the 1960s to power early-model [[electric cars]].<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/energy/2007-07-04-sodium-battery_N.htm |title=New battery packs powerful punch | work=USA Today | first=Paul |last=Davidson |date=2007-07-05}}</ref>
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| A lower temperature version is being developed (2009) in [[Utah]] by [[Ceramatec]]. They use a new
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| [[NaSICON]] membrane to allow operation at 90°C with all components remaining solid.<ref>http://ammiraglio61.wordpress.com/2010/01/15/new-battery-could-change-world-one-house-at-a-time/</ref><ref>http://ceramics.org/ceramictechtoday/materials-innovations/ceramatecs-home-power-storage/</ref>
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| ===NaS battery development in Japan===
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| The NaS battery was one of the four battery types selected as candidates for intensive research by MITI as part of the "Moonlight Project" in 1980. This project sought to develop a durable utility power storage device meeting the criteria shown below in a 10-year project.
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| #1,000 kW class
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| #8 hour charge/8 hour discharge at rated load
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| #Efficiency of 70% or better
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| #Lifetime of 1,500 cycles or better
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| The other three types of batteries were: improved [[Lead–acid battery|lead–acid]], [[vanadium redox battery|redox flow (vanadium type)]], and [[Zinc-bromine flow battery|zinc-bromide batteries]].
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| The consortium formed by TEPCO ([[Tokyo Electric Power]] Co.) and NGK ([[NGK Insulators]] Ltd.) declared their interest in researching the NaS battery in 1983, and have become the primary drivers behind the development of this type ever since. TEPCO chose the NaS battery because all its component elements (sodium, sulphur and ceramics) can be abundantly found in Japan.
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| The first large-scale prototype field testing took place at TEPCO's Tsunashima substation between 1993 and 1996, using 3 x 2 MW, 6.6 kV battery banks. Based on the findings from this trial, improved battery modules were developed and were made commercially available in 2000. The performance of the commercial NaS battery bank is as follows:<ref>http://www.ulvac-uc.co.jp/prm/prm_arc/049pdf/ulvac049-02.pdf (Japanese)</ref>
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| #Capacity : 25–250 kW per bank
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| #Efficiency of 87%
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| #Lifetime of 2,500 cycles at 100% depth of discharge (DOD), or 4,500 cycles at 80% DOD
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| As of 2008, sodium–sulfur batteries are only manufactured by one group, the NGK/TEPCO consortium, which is producing 90 MW of storage capacity each year.<ref name="Yomogita">
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| [http://techon.nikkeibp.co.jp/article/HONSHI/20080924/158411/?P=3 "Can Batteries Save Embattled Wind Power?"] by Hiroki Yomogita 2008
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| </ref>
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| There is currently a demonstration project using NGK Insulators’ NaS battery at Japan Wind Development Co.’s Miura Wind Park in Japan.<ref>{{cite web|author=jfs |url=http://www.japanfs.org/db/1843-e |title=Japanese Companies Test System to Stabilize Output from Wind Power |work=Japan for Sustainability |date=2007-09-23 |accessdate=2010-04-12}}</ref>
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| Japan Wind Development has opened a 51 MW wind farm that incorporates a 34 MW sodium sulfur battery system at Futamata in Aomori Prefecture in May 2008.<ref name="Yomogita" /><ref>[http://www.jwd.co.jp/around/images/ph24.html ]{{dead link|date=April 2010}}</ref>
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| As of 2007, 165 MW of capacity were installed in Japan, and NGK has announced in 2008 a plan to expand its NaS factory output from 90 MW a year to 150 MW a year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ngk.co.jp/news/2008/0728.html |title=2008年｜ニュース｜日本ガイシ株式会社 |publisher=Ngk.co.jp |date=2008-07-28 |language=Japanese |accessdate=2010-04-12}}</ref> (Source in Japanese, but with some pictures.)
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| [[Xcel Energy]] has announced that it will be testing a wind farm energy storage battery based on twenty 50 kW sodium–sulfur batteries from NGK Insulators Ltd of Japan. The 80 tonne, 2 semi-trailer sized battery is expected to have 7.2 MW·h of capacity at a charge and discharge rate of 1 MW.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessgreen.com/business-green/news/2211044/xcel-energy-trial-wind-power |title=Xcel Energy to trial wind power storage system |publisher=BusinessGreen |date=4 Mar 2008 |accessdate=2010-04-12}}</ref>
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| In March 2011, [[Sumitomo Electric Industries]] and [[Kyoto University]] announced that they had developed a low temperature molten sodium ion battery that can output power at under 100°C. The batteries would have double the energy density of Li-ion and considerably lower cost. Sumitomo Electric Industry CEO Masayoshi Matsumoto indicated that the company aim to begin production in 2015. Initial applications would be buildings and buses.
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| ==Applications==
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| ===Electricity storage for grid support===
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| As noted above, NaS batteries can be deployed to support the electric grid. In 2010, [[Presidio, Texas]] built the world's largest sodium–sulfur battery to provide power when the city's lone line to the [[Electric power transmission|Texas power grid]] goes down.<ref>http://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2010-04/texas-town-turns-monster-battery-backup-power</ref> Under some market conditions, NaS batteries provide value via energy [[arbitrage]] (charging battery when electricity is abundant/cheap, and discharging into the grid when electricity is more valuable) and [[voltage regulation]].<ref>Walawalkar R, Apt J, Mancini R, (2007). Economics of electric energy storage for energy arbitrage and regulation in New York, ''Energy Policy'', '''35''':4. p 2558–2568 {{doi|10.1016/j.enpol.2006.09.005}}</ref> NaS batteries are a possible energy storage technology to support renewable energy generation, specifically [[wind farm]]s and solar generation plants. In the case of a wind farm, the battery would store energy during times of high wind but low power demand. This stored energy could then be discharged from the batteries during [[peak load]] periods. In addition to this power shifting, it is likely that sodium sulfur batteries could be used throughout the day to assist in stabilizing the power output of the wind farm during wind fluctuations. These types of batteries present an option for energy storage in locations where other storage options are not feasible due to location or terrain constraints. For example, [[pumped-storage hydroelectricity]] facilities require a lot of space and a significant water resource, and compressed air energy storage ([[Compressed air energy storage|CAES]]) requires some type of geologic feature for storage.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Karl |last=Stahlkopf |url=http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/jun06/3544 |title=Taking Wind Mainstream |work=IEEE Spectrum |date=June 2006 |accessdate=2010-04-12}}</ref>
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| [[NGK Insulators| NGK Insulators Ltd.]] develops sodium–sulfur batteries as grid storage in Japan, France (Île de la Réunion) and the United States.
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| ===Space applications===
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| Because of its high energy density, the NaS battery has been proposed for space applications.<ref>A. A. Koenig and J. R. Rasmussen, "Development of a High Specific Power Sodium Sulfur Cell," IEEE 1990 available at [http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel2/511/3906/00145783.pdf IEEE Explore] website</ref><ref>William Auxer, "The PB sodium sulfur cell for satellite battery applications," International Power Sources Symposium, 32nd, Cherry Hill, NJ, June 9–12, 1986, Proceedings Volume A88-16601 04-44 (Pennington, NJ, Electrochemical Society, Inc., 1986, p. 49-54).</ref> Sodium sulfur cells can be made space-qualified; in fact a test sodium sulfur cell was flown on the [[Space Shuttle]] to demonstrate operation in space. The sodium sulfur flight experiment demonstrated a battery with a specific energy of 150 W·h/kg (3 x nickel–hydrogen battery energy density), operating at 350 °C. It was launched on the [[STS-87]] mission in November 1997, and demonstrated 10 days of experiment operation in orbit.<ref>NRL NaSBE Experiment, 1997 , see [http://code8200.nrl.navy.mil/battery.html NRL page]</ref>
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| ===Transport and heavy machinery===
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| The first large-scale use of sodium–sulfur batteries was in the [[Ford Ecostar|Ford "Ecostar"]] demonstration vehicle,<ref>{{cite web|first=Ron |last=Cogan |url=http://www.greencar.com/features/features21/ |title=Ford Ecostar EV, Ron Cogan |publisher=Greencar.com |date=2007-10-01 |accessdate=2010-04-12}}</ref> an [[electric vehicle]] prototype that was demonstrated in 1991. The high temperature of sodium sulfur batteries presented some difficulties for electric vehicle use, however, and with the development of other battery types better suited to automotive use, the Ecostar never went into production.
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| ==See also==
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| *[[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]]
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| *[[Lithium sulfur battery]]
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| *[[Molten salt battery]]
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| ==References==
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| {{Reflist}}
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| ==External links==
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| * [http://www.aep.com/newsroom/newsreleases/default.aspx?dbcommand=displayrelease&ID=956 US Utility application at American Electric Power]
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| * [http://news.cnet.com/8301-11128_3-20012597-54.html Sodium–sulfur battery smooths out variable wind power]
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| * [http://www.ceramatec.com/technology/ceramic-solid-state-ionic-technologies/advanced-energy-storage/index.php Advanced Energy Storage for Renewable Energy Technologies]
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| {{Galvanic cells}}
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Sodium-sulfur battery}}
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| [[Category:Rechargeable batteries]]
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| [[Category:Metal-sulfur batteries]]
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| [[Category:Energy storage]]
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