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| [[File:Time dilation.svg|right|thumb|300px|Relation between the [[Lorentz factor]] γ and the time dilation of moving clocks.]]
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| '''Time dilation of moving particles''' as predicted by [[special relativity]] can be measured in particle lifetime experiments. According to special relativity, the rate of clock C traveling between two synchronized laboratory clocks A and B is slowed with respect to the laboratory clock rates. This effect is called [[time dilation]]. Since any periodic process can be considered a clock, also the lifetimes of unstable particles such as [[muon]]s must be affected, so that moving muons should have a longer lifetime than resting ones. Variations of experiments that actually confirmed this effect took place in the [[atmosphere]] or in [[particle accelerator]]s. Other time dilation experiments belong to the group of [[Ives–Stilwell experiment]]s. See also [[Tests of special relativity]].
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| == Atmospheric tests ==
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| {{multiple image
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| |align=right
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| |width=250
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| |background color = white
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| |image1=MuonMink.svg
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| |caption1=a) View in S
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| |image2=MuonMink2.svg
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| |caption2=b) View in S'
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| |image3=MyonLoed.svg
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| |caption3=c) [[Loedel diagram]] (In order to make the differences smaller, 0.7c was used instead of 0.995c)
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| |header = [[Minkowski diagram]]
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| }}
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| === Theory ===
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| As the emergence of the muons is caused by the collision of cosmic rays with the upper atmosphere, with the muons reaching Earth after some time, the experiment's outcome depends in all inertial frames on the ratio of two quantities: a) the decay time of muons in relative motion to Earth, b) the length between the upper and lower atmosphere (at Earth's surface). This experimental situation allows for a direct application of [[length contraction]] upon Earth resting in inertial frame S, and time dilation upon the muons resting in S'.<ref>Leo Sartori (1996), Understanding Relativity: a simplified approach to Einstein's theories, University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-20029-2, p 9</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=Sexl, Roman & Schmidt, Herbert K.|title=Raum-Zeit-Relativität|year=1979|publisher=Vieweg|location=Braunschweig|isbn=3528172363}}</ref>
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| ;Time dilation and length contraction
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| ''Length of the atmosphere'': The contraction formula is given by <math>L=L_{0}/\gamma</math>, where ''L''<sub>0</sub> is the [[proper length]] of the atmosphere and ''L'' its contracted length. As the atmosphere rests in S, we have γ=1 and its proper Length ''L''<sub>0</sub> is measured. As it is in motion in S', we have γ>1 and its contracted length ''L’'' is measured.
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| ''Decay time of muons'': The time dilation formula is <math>T=T_{0}\cdot\gamma</math>, where ''T<sub>0</sub>'' is the [[proper time]] of a clock comoving with the muon, corresponding with the decay time of the muon in its proper frame. As the muon rests in S', we have γ=1 and its proper time ''T'<sub>0</sub>'' is measured. As it is moving in S, we have γ>1, therefore its proper time is shorter with respect to time ''T''. (For comparison's sake, another muon resting on Earth can be considered, called muon-S. Therefore, its decay time in S is shorter than that of muon-S', while it is longer in S'.)
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| *In S, muon-S' has a longer decay time than muon-S. Therefore, muon-S' has sufficient time to pass the proper length of the atmosphere in order to reach Earth.
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| *In S', muon-S has a longer decay time than muon-S'. But this is no problem, since the atmosphere is contracted with respect to its proper length. Therefore even the faster decay time of muon-S' suffices in order to be passed by the moving atmosphere and to be reached by Earth.
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| ;Minkowski diagram
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| The muon emerges at the origin (A) by collision of radiation with the upper atmosphere. The muon rests in S', its worldline is the ct'-axis. The upper atmosphere rests in S, its worldline is the ct-axis. Upon the axes of x and x', all events are present that are simultaneous with A in S and S', respectively. The muon and Earth are meeting at D. As the Earth rests in S, its worldline (identical with the lower atmosphere) is drawn parallel to the ct-axis, until it intersects the axes of x' and x.
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| Time: The interval between two events present on the worldline of a single clock is called [[proper time]], an important invariant of special relativity. As the origin of the muon at A and the encounter with Earth at D is on the muon's worldline, only a clock comoving with the muon and thus resting in S' can indicate the proper time ''T'<sub>0</sub>=AD''. Due to its invariance, also in S it is agreed that this clock is indicating exactly that time between the events, and because it is in motion here, ''T'<sub>0</sub>=AD'' is shorter than time T indicated by clocks resting in S. This can be seen at the longer intervals ''T=BD=AE'' parallel to the ct-axis.
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| Length: Event B, where the worldline of Earth intersects the x-axis, corresponds in S to the position of Earth simultaneous with the emergence of the muon. C, where the Earth's worldline intersects the x'-axis, corresponds in S' to the position of Earth simultaneous with the emergence of the muon. Length ''L<sub>0</sub>=AB'' in S is longer than length ''L'=AC'' in S'.
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| === Experiments ===
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| ==== Rossi–Hall experiment ====
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| [[Image:FrischSmith.svg|right|thumb|300px|Results of the '''Frisch-Smith experiment''', confirming time dilation by measuring the decay rate of muons in accordance with special relativity.]]
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| In 1940 at [[Echo Lake (Colorado)|Echo Lake]] and [[Denver, Colorado|Denver]] in [[Colorado]], [[Bruno Rossi]] and [[D. B. Hall|D. B. Hall]] measured the relativistic decay of [[muon]]s (which they thought were [[meson]]s). They only measured muons in the atmosphere traveling above 99,94% of the speed of light. If no time dilation exists, then those muons should decay in the upper regions of the atmosphere, however, as a consequence of time dilation, they are present in considerable amount also at much lower heights. Rossi and Hall confirmed this in a qualitative manner and also estimated the proper muon lifetime.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rossi, B.; Hall, D. B. |year=1941 |title=Variation of the Rate of Decay of Mesotrons with Momentum |journal=[[Physical Review]] |volume=59 |issue=3|pages=223–228|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.59.223 |bibcode=1941PhRv...59..223R}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Rossi, B.; Greisen, K.; Stearns, J. C.; Froman, D. K.; Koontz, P. G.|year=1942 |title=Further Measurements of the Mesotron Lifetime |journal=[[Physical Review]] |volume=61|issue=11-12|pages=675–679|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.61.675|bibcode = 1942PhRv...61..675R }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Rossi, B.; Nereson, N.|year=1942 |title=Experimental Determination of the Disintegration Curve of Mesotrons |journal=[[Physical Review]] |volume=62|issue=9-10|pages=417–422|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.62.417|bibcode = 1942PhRv...62..417R }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Rossi, B.; Nereson, N.|year=1943 |title=Further Measurements on the Disintegration Curve of Mesotrons |journal=[[Physical Review]] |volume=64|issue=7-8|pages=199–201|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.64.199|bibcode = 1943PhRv...64..199N }}</ref>
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| ==== Frisch-Smith experiment ====
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| A much more precise experiment of this kind was conducted by [[David H. Frisch]] and Smith (1963), who measured approximately 563 muons per hour in six runs. The muon's velocity was 0.995 times the speed of light, by which they traversed a difference in height of 1907 m between [[Mount Washington (New Hampshire)|Mount Washington]] and [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] in {{val|6.4|u=us}}. Approximately 412 muons per hour arrived in Cambridge, resulting in a time dilation factor of {{val|8.8|0.8}} in good agreement with the predicted {{val|8.4|2}}.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Frisch, D. H.; Smith, J. H.|year=1963|title=Measurement of the Relativistic Time Dilation Using μ-Mesons|journal=American Journal of Physics|volume=31|issue=5|pages=342–355|doi=10.1119/1.1969508|bibcode = 1963AmJPh..31..342F }}</ref>
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| Since then, many measurements of the mean lifetime of muons in the atmosphere and time dilation have been conducted in [[Undergraduate education|undergraduate]] experiments.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Easwar, Nalini; Macintire, Douglas A.|title=Study of the effect of relativistic time dilation on cosmic ray muon flux – An undergraduate modern physics experiment|journal=American Journal of Physics|volume=59|issue=7|year=1991|pages=589–592|doi=10.1119/1.16841|bibcode = 1991AmJPh..59..589E}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Coan, Thomas; Liu, Tiankuan; Ye, Jingbo|title=A Compact Apparatus for Muon Lifetime Measurement and Time Dilation Demonstration in the Undergraduate Laboratory|journal=American Journal of Physics|volume=74|issue=2|pages=161–164|year=2006|doi=10.1119/1.2135319|arxiv=physics/0502103}}</ref>
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| == Accelerator tests ==
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| === Time dilation and CPT symmetry ===
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| Such measurements of particle decays were also made in [[particle accelerator]]s using different types of particles. Besides the confirmation of time dilation, also [[CPT symmetry]] was confirmed by comparing the lifetimes of positive and negative particles. According to this symmetry, the decay rates of particles and their antiparticles have to be the same. A violation of CPT invariance would also lead to violations of [[Lorentz invariance]] and thus special relativity.
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| {| class=wikitable
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| ![[Pion]] !! [[Kaon]] !! [[Muon]]
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| |valign=top|Durbin ''et al.'' (1952)<ref>{{cite journal|author=Durbin, R. P.; Loar, H. H.; Havens, W. W.|year=1952|title=The Lifetimes of the π<sup>+</sup> and π<sup>-</sup>Mesons|journal=Physical Review|volume=88|issue=2|pages=179–183|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.88.179|bibcode = 1952PhRv...88..179D }}</ref>
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| Eckhause ''et al.'' (1965)<ref>{{cite journal|author=Eckhause, M.; Harris, R. J., Jr.; Shuler, W. B.; Siegel, R. T.; Welsh, R. E.|year=1967|title=Remeasurement of the π+ lifetime|journal=Physics Letters|volume=19|issue=4|pages=348–350|doi=10.1016/0031-9163(65)91016-4|bibcode = 1965PhL....19..348E }}</ref>
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| Nordberg ''et al.'' (1967)<ref name=nordberg>{{cite journal|author=Nordberg, M. E.; Lobkowicz, F.; Burman, R. L.|year=1967|title=Remeasurement of the π+ lifetime|journal=Physics Letters B|volume=24|issue=11|pages=594–596|doi=10.1016/0370-2693(67)90401-7|bibcode = 1967PhLB...24..594N }}</ref>
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| Greenburg ''et al.'' (1969)<ref>{{cite journal|author=Greenberg, A. J.; Ayres, D. S.; Cormack, A. M.; Kenney, R. W.; Caldwell, D. O.; Elings, V. B.; Hesse, W. P.; Morrison, R. J.|year=1969|title=Charged-Pion Lifetime and a Limit on a Fundamental Length|journal=Physical Review Letters|volume=23|issue=21|pages=1267–1270|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.23.1267|bibcode=1969PhRvL..23.1267G}}</ref>
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| Ayres ''et al.'' (1971)<ref name=ayres>{{cite journal|author=Ayres, D. S.; Cormack, A. M.; Greenberg, A. J.; Kenney, R. W.; Caldwell, D. O.; Elings, V. B.; Hesse, W. P.; Morrison, R. J.|year=1971|title=Measurements of the Lifetimes of Positive and Negative Pions|journal=Physical Review D|volume=3|issue=5|pages=1051–1063|doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.3.1051|bibcode = 1971PhRvD...3.1051A }}</ref>
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| |valign=top|Burrowes ''et al.'' (1959)<ref>{{cite journal|author=Nordin, Paul|year=1959|author=Burrowes, H. C.; Caldwell, D. O.; Frisch, D. H.; Hill, D. A.; Ritson, D. M.; Schluter, R. A.|title=K-Meson-Nucleon Total Cross Sections from 0.6 to 2.0 Bev|journal=Physical Review Letters|volume=2|issue=3|pages=117–119|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.2.117|bibcode=1959PhRvL...2..117B}}</ref>
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| Nordin (1961)<ref>{{cite journal|author=Nordin, Paul|year=1961|title=S- and P-Wave Interactions of K- Mesons in Hydrogen|journal=Physical Review|volume=123|issue=6|pages=2168–2176|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.123.2168|bibcode = 1961PhRv..123.2168N }}</ref>
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| Boyarski ''et al.'' (1962)<ref>{{cite journal|author=Boyarski, A. M.; Loh, E. C.; Niemela, L. Q.; Ritson, D. M.; Weinstein, R.; Ozaki, S.|year=1962|title=Study of the K+ Decay|journal=Physical Review|volume=128|issue=5|pages=2398–2402|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.128.2398|bibcode = 1962PhRv..128.2398B }}</ref>
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| Lobkowicz ''et al.'' (1969)<ref name=Lobkowicz>{{cite journal|author=Lobkowicz, F.; Melissinos, A. C.; Nagashima, Y.; Tewksbury, S.; von Briesen, H.; Fox, J. D.|year=1969|title=Precise Measurement of the K+K- Lifetime Ratio|journal=Physical Review|volume=185|issue=5|pages=1676–1686|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.185.1676|bibcode = 1969PhRv..185.1676L }}</ref>
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| Ott ''et al.'' (1971)<ref name=ott>{{cite journal|author=Ott, R. J.; Pritchard, T. W.|year=1971|title=Precise Measurement of the K+ Lifetime|journal=Physical Review D|volume=3|issue=1|pages=52–56|doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.3.52|bibcode = 1971PhRvD...3...52O }}</ref>
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| Skjeggestad ''et al.'' (1971)<ref name=Skjeggestad>{{cite journal|author=Skjeggestad, O.; James, F.; Montanet, L.; Paul, E.; Saetre, P.; Sendall, D. M.; Burgun, G.; Lesquoy, E.; Muller, A.; Pauli, E.; Zylberajch, S.|year=1972|title=Measurement of the KSO mean life|journal=Nuclear Physics B|volume=48|issue=2|pages=343–352|doi=10.1016/0550-3213(72)90174-5|bibcode = 1972NuPhB..48..343S }}</ref>
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| Geweniger ''et al.'' (1974)<ref name=Geweniger>{{cite journal|author=Geweniger, C.; Gjesdal, S.; Presser, G.; Steffen, P.; Steinberger, J.; Vannucci, F.; Wahl, H.; Eisele, F.; Filthuth, H.; Kleinknecht, K.; Lüth, V.; Zech, G.|year=1974|title=A new determination of the Ko --> π+π- decay parameters|journal=Physics Letters B|volume=48|issue=5|pages=487–491|doi=10.1016/0370-2693(74)90385-2|bibcode = 1974PhLB...48..487G }}</ref>
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| Carithers ''et al.'' (1975)<ref>{{cite journal|author=Carithers, W. C.; Modis, T.; Nygren, D. R.; Pun, T. P.; Schwartz, E. L.; Sticker, H.; Christenson, J. H.|year=1975|title=Measurement of the Phase of the CP-Nonconservation Parameter η+- and the KS Total Decay Rate|journal=Physical Review Letters|volume=34|issue=19|pages=1244–1246|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.34.1244|bibcode=1975PhRvL..34.1244C}}</ref>
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| |valign=top|Lundy (1962)<ref>{{cite journal|author=Lundy, R. A.|year=1962|title=Precision Measurement of the μ+ Lifetime|journal=Physical Review|volume=125|issue=5|pages=1686–1696|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.125.1686|bibcode = 1962PhRv..125.1686L }}</ref>
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| Meyer ''et al.'' (1963)<ref>{{cite journal|author=Meyer, S. L.; Anderson, E. W.; Bleser, E.; Lederman, I. M.; Rosen, J. L.; Rothberg, J.; Wang, I.-T.|year=1963|title=Precision Lifetime Measurements on Positive and Negative Muons|journal=Physical Review|volume=132|issue=6|pages=2693–2698|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.132.2693|bibcode = 1963PhRv..132.2693M }}</ref>
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| Eckhause ''et al.'' (1963)<ref>{{cite journal|author=Eckhause, M.; Filippas, T. A.; Sutton, R. B.; Welsh, R. E.|year=1963|title=Measurements of Negative-Muon Lifetimes in Light Isotopes|journal=Physical Review|volume=132|issue=1|pages=422–425|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.132.422|bibcode = 1963PhRv..132..422E }}</ref>
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| Balandin ''et al.'' (1974)<ref>{{cite journal|author=Balandin, M. P.; Grebenyuk, V. M.; Zinov, V. G.; Konin, A. D.; Ponomarev, A. N.|year=1974|title=Measurement of the lifetime of the positive muon|journal=Soviet Physics JETP|volume=40|pages=811|bibcode=1974JETP...40..811B}}</ref>
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| Today, time dilation of particles is routinely confirmed in particle accelerators alongside with [[tests of relativistic energy and momentum]], and its consideration is obligatory in the analysis of particle experiments at relativistic velocities.
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| === Twin paradox ===
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| Bailey ''et al.'' (1977) measured the lifetime of positive and negative muons sent around a loop in the [[CERN]] Muon [[storage ring]]. This experiment confirmed both time dilation and the [[twin paradox]], ''i.e.'' the hypothesis that clocks sent away and coming back to their initial position are retarded with respect to a resting clock.<ref name="Bailey 1977">{{cite journal|author=Bailey, H.; Borer, K.; Combley F.; Drumm H.; Krienen F.; Lange F.; Picasso E.; Ruden W. von; Farley F. J. M. ; Field J. H.; Flegel W. & Hattersley P. M.|year=1977|title=Measurements of relativistic time dilatation for positive and negative muons in a circular orbit|journal=Nature|volume=268|issue=5618|pages=301–305|doi=10.1038/268301a0|bibcode = 1977Natur.268..301B }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Bailey, J.; Borer, K.; Combley, F.; Drumm, H.; Eck, C.; Farley, F. J. M.; Field, J. H.; Flegel, W.; Hattersley, P. M.; Krienen, F.; Lange, F.; Lebée, G.; McMillan, E.; Petrucci, G.; Picasso, E.; Rúnolfsson, O.; von Rüden, W.; Williams, R. W.; Wojcicki, S.|year=1979|title=Final report on the CERN muon storage ring including the anomalous magnetic moment and the electric dipole moment of the muon, and a direct test of relativistic time dilation|journal=Nuclear Physics B|volume=150|pages=1–75|doi=10.1016/0550-3213(79)90292-X|bibcode = 1979NuPhB.150....1B }}</ref>
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| Other measurements of the twin paradox involve gravitational time dilation as well, see for instance the [[Hafele–Keating experiment]] and repetitions.
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| === Clock hypothesis ===
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| The [[clock hypothesis]] states that the extent of acceleration doesn't influence the value of time dilation. In most of the former experiments mentioned above, the decaying particles were in an inertial frame, ''i.e.'' unaccelerated. However, in Bailey ''et al.'' (1977) the particles were subject to a transverse acceleration of up to ∼10<sup>18</sup> g. Since the result was the same, it was shown that acceleration has no impact on time dilation.<ref name="Bailey 1977" /> In addition, Roos ''et al.'' (1980) measured the decay of [[Sigma baryon]]s, which were subject to a longitudinal acceleration between 0.5 and 5.0 × 10<sup>15</sup> g. Again, no deviation from ordinary time dilation could be measured.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Roos, C. E.; Marraffino, J.; Reucroft, S.; Waters, J.; Webster, M. S.; Williams, E. G. H.|year=1980|title=σ+/- lifetimes and longitudinal acceleration|journal=Nature|volume=286|issue=5770|pages=244–245|doi=10.1038/286244a0|bibcode = 1980Natur.286..244R }}</ref>
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| ==References==
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| {{reflist}}
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| ==External links==
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| * {{Cite web |last=Roberts |first=T |last2=Schleif |first2=S |last3=Dlugosz |first3=JM (ed.) |year=2007 |title=What is the experimental basis of Special Relativity? |url=http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SR/experiments.html |work=Usenet Physics FAQ |publisher=[[University of California, Riverside]]}}
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| * [http://www.egglescliffe.org.uk/physics/relativity/muons1_.html Time Dilation - An Experiment With Mu-Mesons]
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| * Bonizzoni, Ilaria; Giuliani, Giuseppe, ''The interpretations by experimenters of experiments on 'time dilation': 1940-1970 circa,'' {{arxiv|physics/0008012}}
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| {{Tests of special relativity}}
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Rossi-Hall Experiment}}
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| [[Category:Physics experiments]]
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| [[Category:Special relativity]]
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| [[Category:1940 in science]]
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