|
|
| Line 1: |
Line 1: |
| {{Redirect|List of Indo-European roots|a list of common Indo-European roots and cognates|wikt:Appendix:List of Proto-Indo-European roots}}
| | Friends contact her Claude Gulledge. Her spouse and her selected to reside in Alabama. Bookkeeping is what I do for a residing. Climbing is what adore doing.<br><br>Check out my blog: extended car warranty ([http://www.Madgamers.eu/index/users/view/id/7632 visit the following site]) |
| {{PIE notice}}
| |
| | |
| The '''[[root (linguistics)|roots]]''' of the reconstructed '''[[Proto-Indo-European language]]''' (PIE) are basic parts of [[word]]s that carry a [[lexical (semiotics)|lexical]] meaning, so-called [[morpheme]]s. PIE roots usually have [[verb]]al meaning like "eat" or "run". Roots never occur alone in the language. Complete [[inflected]] words like verbs, nouns or adjectives are formed by adding further morphemes to a root. Typically, a root plus a [[suffix]] forms a [[Stem (linguistics)|stem]], and adding an [[Ending (linguistics)|ending]] forms a word.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|pp=76}}</ref> Suffix and ending together are sometimes called the ''desinence'' (German: ''Ausgang''), especially when they are fused.<!-- should be mentioned in Hadumod Bußmann's ''Lexikon der Sprachwissenschaft'', for example, or some of the introductions to Indo-European or general linguistics, or morphology -->
| |
| | |
| <math>
| |
| \underbrace{\underbrace{\mathrm{root+suffix}}_{\mathrm{stem}} + \mathrm{ending}}_{\mathrm{word}}
| |
| </math>
| |
| | |
| For example, {{PIE|*''bʰéreti''}}<ref>The [[asterisk]] * indicates that this form is not directly attested, but has been reconstructed on the basis of other linguistic material.</ref> "he carries" can be split into the root {{PIE|*''bʰer-''}} "to carry", the suffix {{PIE|*''-e-''}} "[[present tense]]" and the ending {{PIE|*''-ti''}} "third [[Grammatical person|person]] [[Grammatical number|singular]]".<ref>All examples of PIE roots are taken from {{Harvcoltxt|Rix|2001}} and {{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004}}.</ref>
| |
| | |
| In its base form, a PIE root consists of a single [[vowel]], preceded and followed by [[consonant]]s. Except for a very few cases, the root is fully characterized by its consonants, while the vowel may alternate, a process called [[Indo-European ablaut|ablaut]]. Thus, the mentioned root {{PIE|*''bʰer-''}} can also appear as {{PIE|*''bʰor-''}}, with a long vowel as {{PIE|*''bʰēr-''}} or {{PIE|*''bʰōr-''}}, or even unsyllabic as {{PIE|*''bʰr-''}}, in different grammatical contexts.
| |
| | |
| == Phonotactics ==
| |
| [[Phonotactics]] describes the restrictions on the permissible combinations of [[phoneme]]s (sounds).
| |
| | |
| === Basic root structure ===
| |
| The centre of a PIE root is the ablauting vowel (usually {{PIE|*''e''}}, perhaps sometimes {{PIE|*''a''}}<ref>The existence of {{PIE|*''a''}} as an ablauting vowel is disputed (see [[Indo-European ablaut#a-grade|Indo-European ablaut: a-grade]]).</ref> in its base form, the ''full grade''). This vowel constitutes a [[Sonority hierarchy|sonority]] peak that is preceded and followed by a sequence of consonants with progressively decreasing sonority values. In other words, the sonority has to fall toward both edges of the root. The sonority hierarchy is as follows:<ref name="LIV">{{Harvcoltxt|Rix|2001|p=5}}</ref>
| |
| # non-[[labial consonant|labial]] sonorants {{PIE|*''l'' *''r'' *''y'' *''n''}}
| |
| # labial sonorants {{PIE|*''w'' *''m''}}
| |
| # [[plosive]]s (sounds like {{PIE|*''p'' *''t'' *''ḱ'' *''k'' *''kʷ''}} or {{PIE|*''bʰ''}}; see [[Proto-Indo-European phonology#Consonants|Proto-Indo-European phonology]] for a complete table of PIE plosives)
| |
| | |
| This gives the following root structure (with ''P'' being any plosive and <math>\oslash</math> an empty position):
| |
| | |
| <math>
| |
| ^*
| |
| \begin{Bmatrix} P \\ \oslash \end{Bmatrix}
| |
| \begin{Bmatrix} w \\ m \\ \oslash \end{Bmatrix}
| |
| \begin{Bmatrix} l \\ r \\ y \\ n \\ \oslash \end{Bmatrix}
| |
| e
| |
| \begin{Bmatrix} l \\ r \\ y \\ n \\ \oslash \end{Bmatrix}
| |
| \begin{Bmatrix} w \\ m \\ \oslash \end{Bmatrix}
| |
| \begin{Bmatrix} P \\ \oslash \end{Bmatrix}-
| |
| </math>
| |
| | |
| {{PIE|*''w''}} after a vowel is often written {{PIE|*''u''}}, and {{PIE|*''y''}} after a vowel is often written {{PIE|*''i''}}. Thus, {{PIE|*''leiǵ-'' {{=}} *''leyǵ-''}} "to bind" and {{PIE|*''dʰeu-'' {{=}} *''dʰew-''}} "to run" are allowed roots.
| |
| | |
| Other possible roots include {{PIE|*''ped-''}} "to tread", {{PIE|*''dʰwes-''}} "to breathe" and {{PIE|*''wleikʷ-''}} "to moisten". Forbidden are structures like {{PIE|**''mter-''}} (wrong order of phonemes: internal plosive) and {{PIE|**''wmek-''}} (two phonemes of the same group: unchanging sonority).
| |
| | |
| === Additional phonemes ===
| |
| The remaining sounds, namely the [[laryngeals]] {{PIE|*''h₁'' *''h₂'' *''h₃''}} and the sibilant {{PIE|*''s''}}, can occupy almost any place in the hierarchy.<ref name="LIV" /> {{PIE|*''s''}} is particularly common in initial position (see [[s-mobile]]).<ref name="Fortson 2004">{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|pp=70–73}}</ref> Examples of such roots are {{PIE|*''peth₂-''}} "to fly", {{PIE|*''treh₁w-''}} "to nourish" and {{PIE|*''streig-''}} "to stroke".
| |
| | |
| Following the terminology of [[Sanskrit grammar]], roots ending in laryngeals are referred to as [[Seṭ and aniṭ roots|seṭ-]], all others as aniṭ-roots.
| |
| | |
| === Restrictions on the plosives ===
| |
| A root cannot contain two plain voiced plosives ({{PIE|**''ged-''}}), nor can it contain a voiced aspirate and a voiceless plosive ({{PIE|**''tebʰ-''}}), unless the latter occurs in a word-initial cluster after an {{PIE|*''s''}} (e.g. {{PIE|*''stebʰ-''}} "to stiffen").<ref name="Fortson 2004" />
| |
| | |
| === Restrictions on the number of phonemes ===
| |
| The vowel has to be preceded and followed by at least one consonant each. The maximum number of consonants seems to be five (as in {{PIE|*''strengʰ-''}} "to twine").<ref name="Fortson 2004" />
| |
| | |
| Early PIE scholars reconstructed a number of roots beginning or ending with a vowel.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Pokorny|1959}}</ref> The latter type always had a long vowel ({{PIE|*''dʰē-''}} "to put", {{PIE|*''bʰwā-''}} "to grow", {{PIE|*''dō-''}} "to give"), while this restriction did not hold for vowel-initial roots ({{PIE|*''ed-''}} "to eat", {{PIE|*''aǵ-''}} "to drive", {{PIE|*''od-''}} "to smell"). [[Laryngeal theory]] can explain this behaviour by reconstructing a laryngeal following the vowel ({{PIE|*''dʰeh₁-'', *''bʰweh₂-'', *''deh₃-''}}, resulting in a long vowel) or preceding it ({{PIE|*''h₁ed-'', *''h₂eǵ-'', ''*h₃ed-''}}, resulting in a short vowel). These reconstructions obey the mentioned rules.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Meier-Brügger|Fritz|Mayrhofer|2003|loc=L 321}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| === Roots without a full grade ===
| |
| Some roots have no central {{PIE|*''e''}}, an example being {{PIE|*''bʰuH-''}} "to grow, to become". Such roots can be seen as generalized zero grades of forms like {{PIE|**''bʰweH-''}},<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Rix|2001|pp=98–99}}</ref> and thus follow the phonotactical rules.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Jasanoff|2003|p=112}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| === Exceptions ===
| |
| Some roots like {{PIE|*''pster-''}} "to sneeze" or {{PIE|*''pteh₂k-''}} "to duck" do not appear to follow these rules.<ref name="LIV" /> This might be due to incomplete understanding of PIE phonotactics or to wrong reconstructions. {{PIE|*''pster-''}}, for example, might not have existed in PIE at all, if the Indo-European words usually traced back to it are [[onomatopoeia]]s.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|Adams|1997|p=[http://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC&pg=PA133&lpg=PA133&dq=%22pster%22+%2B+%22onomatopoeia%22&source=bl&ots=wUn3-2d98K&sig=5RJq7uTME87G5Me-x7EOApLSySQ&hl=en&ei=emtaStChBIqkMdOPxEI&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1 133]}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| [[Thorn cluster]]s are sequences of a dental ({{PIE|*''t'' *''d'' *''dʰ''}}) plus a velar plosive ({{PIE|*''k'' *''g'' *''gʰ''}} etc.).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|pp=59–60}}</ref> Their role in PIE phonotactics is unknown. Roots like {{PIE|*''dʰgʷʰei-''}} "to perish" apparently violate the phonotactical rules, but are quite common.
| |
| | |
| ==Lexical meaning==
| |
| The meaning of a reconstructed root is conventionally that of a verb; the terms ''root'' and ''verbal root'' are almost synonymous in PIE grammar. This is because, apart from a limited number of so-called [[Proto-Indo-European noun#Root nouns|root nouns]], PIE roots overwhelmingly participate in verbal inflection through well-established morphological and phonological mechanisms. Their meanings are not always directly reconstructible, due to [[semantic shift]]s that led to discrepancies in the meanings of [[Reflex (linguistics)|reflexes]] in the attested [[daughter language]]s. Many nouns and adjectives are derived from verbal roots via suffixes and ablaut.
| |
| | |
| Nevertheless, some roots did exist that did not have a primary verbal derivation. Apart from the aforementioned root nouns, the most important of these were the so-called [[Caland root]]s, which had adjectival meaning. Such roots generally formed proterokinetic adjectives with the suffix {{PIE|*''-u-''}}, [[Thematic vowel|thematic]] adjectives in {{PIE|*''-ró-''}} and compounding stems in {{PIE|*''-i-''}}. They included at least {{PIE|*''h₁rewdʰ-''}} "red", {{PIE|*''h₂erǵ-''}} "white", {{PIE|*''dʰewb-''}} "deep" and {{PIE|*''gʷreh₂-''}} "heavy".<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Ringe|2006}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ==Word formation==
| |
| Fully inflected words are usually formed from a root plus a suffix plus an ending. The suffix is sometimes missing, which has been interpreted as a [[zero suffix]].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|p=108}}</ref> Words with zero suffix are termed ''root verbs'' and ''root nouns''. Beyond this basic structure, there is the [[nasal infix]], a present tense marker, and [[reduplication]], a sort of [[prefix]] with a number of grammatical and derivational functions.<ref name="LIV aspects">{{Harvcoltxt|Rix|2001|pp=14–21}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Finite verbs===
| |
| {{main|Proto-Indo-European verbs}}
| |
| Verbal suffixes, including the zero suffix, convey grammatical information about [[Grammatical tense|tense]] and [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]], two grammatical categories that are not clearly distinguished. Present and [[aorist]] are universally recognised, while some of the other aspects remain controversial. Two of the four [[Grammatical mood|moods]], the [[subjunctive]] and the [[optative]], are also formed with suffixes, which sometimes results in forms with two consecutive suffixes: {{PIE|*''bʰér-'''e'''-'''e'''-ti'' > ''*bʰérēti''}} "he would carry", with the first {{PIE|*''e''}} being the present tense marker, and the second the subjunctive marker.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|pp=81–83}}</ref> Reduplication can mark the present and the [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]].<ref name="LIV aspects" />
| |
| | |
| Verbal endings convey information about [[grammatical person]], [[Grammatical number|number]] and [[voice (grammar)|voice]]. The [[imperative mood]] has its own set of endings.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|pp=83–85}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Nouns and adjectives===
| |
| {{main|Proto-Indo-European nominals}}
| |
| Nouns are usually derived from roots or verb stems by suffixation or other means (see the [[Proto-Indo-European nominals#Morphology|morphology of the Proto-Indo-European noun]] for some examples). This can hold even for roots that are often translated as nouns: {{PIE|*''ped-''}}, for example, can mean "to tread" or "foot", depending on the ablaut grade and ending. Some nouns like {{PIE|*''agʷn-o-''}} "lamb" or {{PIE|*''h₂ster-''}} "star", however, are not derived from verbal roots.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|pp=116, 302}}</ref> In any case, the meaning of a noun is given by its stem, whether this is composed of a root plus a suffix or not. This leaves the ending, which conveys [[Grammatical case|case]] and number.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|p=103}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| Adjectives are also derived by suffixation of (usually verbal) roots. An example is {{PIE|*''ǵn̥h₁-tó-s''}} "begotten, produced" from the root {{PIE|*''ǵenh₁-''}} "to beget, to produce". The endings are the same as with nouns.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|pp=120–121}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Infinitives and participles===
| |
| [[Infinitive]]s are verbal nouns and, just like other nouns, are formed with suffixes. It is not clear whether any of the infinitive suffixes reconstructed from the daughter languages ({{PIE|*''-dʰje-'', *''-tu-'', *''-ti-''}}, among others) was actually used to express an infinitive in PIE.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|p=97}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| [[Participle]]s are verbal adjectives formed with the suffixes {{PIE|*''-ent-''}} ([[Active voice|active]] [[Imperfective aspect|imperfective]] and aorist participle), {{PIE|*''-wos-''}} (perfect participle) and {{PIE|*''-mh₁no-''}} or {{PIE|*''-m(e)no-''}} ([[Mediopassive voice|mediopassive]] participle), among others.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|pp=97–98}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| == Root extensions ==
| |
| Root extensions are additions of one or two sounds, often plosives, to the end of a root which do not seem to change its meaning. For {{PIE|*''(s)teu-''}} "to push, hit, thrust", we can reconstruct
| |
| *{{PIE|*''(s)teu-'''k'''-''}} > [[Ancient Greek]] ''τύ'''κ'''ος'' (''tú'''k'''os'') "hammer"
| |
| *{{PIE|*''(s)teu-'''g'''-''}} > [[English language|English]] ''sto'''k'''e'' (Germanic ''k'' goes back to PIE {{PIE|*''g''}}.)
| |
| *{{PIE|*''(s)teu-'''d'''-''}} > [[Vedic Sanskrit|Vedic]] ''tu'''d'''áti'' "beats"
| |
| The source of these extensions is not known.<ref name="Fortson 2004" />
| |
| | |
| == See also ==
| |
| * ''[[Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben]]'' (''"Lexicon of the Indo-European Verbs"'', in German), a lexicon of PIE verbal roots
| |
| | |
| == Notes ==
| |
| {{Reflist|2}}
| |
| | |
| == References ==
| |
| * {{cite book |last1=Brugmann |first1=Karl |author1-link=Karl Brugmann |last2=Delbrück |first2=Berthold |author2-link=Berthold Delbrück |title=[[Grundriß der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen]] |year=1886 |ref=harv}}
| |
| * {{cite book |last=Buck |first=Carl Darling |author-link=Carl Darling Buck |title=A dictionary of selected synonyms in the principal Indo-European languages: A contribution to the history of ideas (Reprint edition) |publisher=University of Chicago Press |date=15 June 1988 |isbn=0-226-07937-6 |ref=harv}}
| |
| * {{cite book |last=Fortson |first=Benjamin W., IV |title=Indo-European Language and Culture |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2004 |isbn=1-4051-0316-7 |ref=harv}}
| |
| * {{cite book |last=Jasanoff |first=Jay |authorlink=Jay Jasanoff |title=Hittite and the Indo-European Verb |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-19-928198-X |ref=harv}}
| |
| * {{cite book |last=Köbler |first=Gerhard |title=Indogermanisches Wörterbuch | trans_title=Indo-European Dictionary | language=German | year=1980 |url=http://www.koeblergerhard.de/idgwbhin.html |ref=harv}}
| |
| * {{cite book |last1=Mallory|first1=J. P. |author1-link=J. P. Mallory |last2=Adams|first2=D. Q. |author2-link=Douglas Q. Adams |title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture |publisher=Routledge |year=1997 |isbn=1-884964-98-2 |ref=harv}}
| |
| * {{cite book |first1=Michael |last1=Meier-Brügger |author1-link=Michael Meier-Brügger |first2=Matthias |last2=Fritz |first3=Manfred |last3=Mayrhofer |author3-link=Manfred Mayrhofer |title=Indo-European Linguistics |year=2003 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=3-11-017433-2 |location=Berlin; New York |ref=harv}}
| |
| * {{cite book |last=Pokorny |first=Julius |author-link=Julius Pokorny |title=[[Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch]] |publisher=French & European Publications |year=1959 |isbn=0-8288-6602-3 |ref=harv}}
| |
| * {{cite book |last1=Ringe |first1=Don |author1-link=Don Ringe |title=A Linguistic History of English part 1: From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic |year=2006}}
| |
| * {{cite book |last=Rix |first=Helmut |author-link=Helmut Rix |title=[[Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben]] |publisher=Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag |year=2001 |isbn=3-89500-219-4 |ref=harv}}
| |
| * {{cite book |last=Watkins |first=Calvert |author-link=Calvert Watkins |title=The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European roots: Second Edition |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |date=14 September 2000 |isbn=0-395-98610-9 |ref=harv}}
| |
| | |
| == External links ==
| |
| {{wiktionary|Appendix:List of Proto-Indo-European roots}}
| |
| * [http://web.archive.org/web/20080726143746/http://www.bartleby.com/61/IEroots.html American Heritage Indo-European Roots Index]
| |
| * [http://www.ieed.nl/cgi-bin/startq.cgi?flags=endnnnl&root=leiden&basename=%5Cdata%5Cie%5Cpokorny Database query to the online version of Pokorny's PIE dictionary]
| |
| * [http://homepage.ntlworld.com/richard.wordingham/pok/pok_index.htm Index to the online version of Pokorny's PIE dictionary]
| |
| * Jonathan Slocum, [http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/ielex/ Indo-European Lexicon] from the University of Texas Linguistic Research Center
| |
| | |
| {{Proto-Indo-European language}}
| |
| | |
| {{good article}}
| |
| | |
| [[Category:Proto-Indo-European language|Roots]]
| |
| [[Category:Linguistic root|Indo-European]]
| |
| | |
| [[br:Roll gwrizioù indezeuropek]]
| |
| [[de:Indogermanische Wortwurzeln]]
| |
| [[fr:Racine indo-européenne]]
| |
| [[gl:Lista de raíces indoeuropeas]]
| |
| [[it:Elenco di radici indoeuropee]]
| |
| [[la:Index radicum Indoeuropaearum]]
| |
| [[zh:原始印歐詞根]]
| |