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| The '''McDonald–Kreitman test''' is a statistical test often used by evolution and population biologists to detect and measure the amount of [[adaptive evolution]] within a species by determining whether adaptive evolution has occurred, and the proportion of substitutions that resulted from positive selection (also known as [[directional selection]]). To do this, the McDonald–Kreitman test compares the amount of variation within a species ([[polymorphism]]) to the divergence between species (substitutions) at two types of sites, neutral and nonneutral. A substitution refers to a nucleotide that is fixed within one species, but a different nucleotide is fixed within a second species at the same base pair of homologous DNA sequences.<ref name=futuyma>Futuyma, D. J. 2013. Evolution. Sinauer Associates, Inc.: Sunderland.</ref> A site is nonneutral if its is either advantageous or deleterious.<ref name=charlesworth>[http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/25/6/1007.short], Charlesworth, J. Eyre-Walker, A. 2008. The McDonald–Kreitman Test and Slightly Deleterious Mutations. Molecular Biology and Evolution 25 (6): 1007-1015.</ref> The two types of sites can be either synonymous or nonsynonymous within a protein-coding region. In a protein-coding sequence of DNA, a site is synonymous if a [[point mutation]] at that site would not change the amino acid, also known as a [[silent mutation]]. Because the mutation did not result in a change in the amino acid that was originally coded for by the protein-coding sequence, the phenotype, or the observable trait, of the organism is generally unchanged by the silent mutation.<ref name=Kimchi>[http://www.sciencemag.org/content/315/5811/525], Kimchi-Sarfaty, C. Oh, J. M. Kim, I. Sauna, Z. E. Calcagno, A. M. Ambudkar, S. V. Gottesman, M. M. 2007. A "Silent" Polymorphism in the MDR1 Gene Changes Substrate Specificity. Science 315 (5811): 525-528.</ref> A site in a protein-coding sequence of DNA is nonsynonymous if a point mutation at that site results in a change in the amino acid, resulting in a change in the organism's phenotype.<ref name=charlesworth/> Typically, silent mutations in protein-coding regions are used as the "control" in the McDonald–Kreitman test.
| | Doing home improvement with someone you love is very enjoyable. The two of you can spend an entire weekend improving your little love shack. You'll save a ton by doing it on your own! These tips can help you make your project fun and easy.<br><br>Add a bit of class and sophistication to your home by building an unusual addition. For example, a library with custom built shelves or a basement converted to a wine cellar may add a useful and classy touch. These impressive additions will not only please you, but they will substantially increase the value of your home.<br><br>Using motion sensors on outdoor lighting is a good way to save money on energy. With the motion sensor on most models you can make adjustments to the sensitivity, and they can be manually turned on.<br><br>There are many different flooring options out there to try if you need to replace your floor. Instead of looking at stone tile or even linoleum, you can look into vinyl self-adhesive flooring. This peel-and-stick brand of flooring comes in a wide variety of colors and styles. It can look just like stone or wood, and it's very tough, easy to clean up, and it can take a beating. Vinyl flooring comes in two varieties: separate tiles for small areas and large sheets for bigger areas.<br><br>You can change the appearance of your appliances in the kitchen more affordably than you might think. Stainless steel is popular right now, but that doesn't mean you should replace all of your appliances. There is spray paint available for your appliances in a lot of different colors. This can be completed easily in one day.<br><br>If your project utilizes brick, it is always a smart idea to buy extra materials. Whenever you need to make a repair or add-on to the brick work, it may be hard to locate bricks that match up with the bricks you already have. Brick styles change regularly. Stocking up on extra bricks now can save you a lot of time and effort later.<br><br>A room with the proper lighting can be a huge blessing. Bright rooms feel much warmer to the homeowners and visitors. If you need more light, consider installing a second fixture. Just changing the lighting in a room can give it a fresh new look and open it up.<br><br>Landscaping is an important element of you home's look, but you could overlook it when thinking about a home improvement project. The front lawn is one of the first things that people see, and you will want this to look exceptional. Maintain the lawn, plant flowers or shrubs to beautify your home.<br><br>If your home improvement project is going to inconvenience the neighbors, make sure they know as soon as possible. Significant renovations can mean blocking access to your street as deliveries are made and equipment is moved. If you let your neighbors know ahead of time, they will most likely be less annoyed and inconvenienced.<br><br>Lots of homeowners decrease their renovation costs by putting in particleboard or solid wood cabinets without hardware. Fortunately, you are able to get knobs, pulls for the drawers and handles at a hardware store or online. You can choose from everything, from modern knobs to vintage looking pulls and designer hardware, all of which can be easily installed in a few minutes.<br><br>Now that you are armed with a few solid tips to guide you, making a sound decision regarding home improvement should seem less daunting. Remember, quality home improvements to your home will not only allow you to have a more desirable space but will also improve the overall value of your home.<br><br>If you adored this article and also you would like to get more info about home improvement diy ideas ([http://www.homeimprovementdaily.com please click www.homeimprovementdaily.com]) generously visit our own web page. |
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| In 1991, John H. McDonald and [[Martin Kreitman]] derived the McDonald–Kreitman test while performing an experiment with [[Drosophila]] (fruit flies) and their differences in amino acid sequence of the alcohol dehydrogenase gene. McDonald and Kreitman proposed this method to estimate the proportion of substitutions that are fixed by positive selection rather than by genetic drift.<ref name=eyrewalker>[http://www.zoology.wisc.edu/courses/611/Part2/Readings/3eyre-walker_tree2006.pdf], Eyre-Walker, A. 2006. The genomic rate of adaptive evolution. Science Direct 21 (10): 569-575.</ref>
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| In order to set up the McDonald–Kreitman test, we must first set up a two-way [[contingency table]] of our data on the species being investigated as shown below:
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |-
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| ! !! Fixed !! Polymorphic
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| | [[Synonymous substitution|Synonymous]] || ''D''<sub>s</sub> || ''P''<sub>s</sub>
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| | Nonsynonymous || ''D''<sub>n</sub> || ''P''<sub>n</sub>
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| |}
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| * ''D''<sub>s</sub>: the number of synonymous substitutions per gene
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| * ''D''<sub>n</sub>: the number of non-synonymous substitutions per gene
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| * ''P''<sub>s</sub>: the number of synonymous polymorphisms per gene
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| * ''P''<sub>n</sub>: the number of non-synonymous polymorphisms per gene
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| To quantify the values for ''D''<sub>s</sub>, ''D''<sub>n</sub>, ''P''<sub>s</sub>, and ''P''<sub>n</sub>, you count the number of differences in the protein-coding region for each type of variable in the contingency table.
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| The [[null hypothesis]] of the McDonald–Kreitman test is that the ratio of nonsynonymous to synonymous variation within a species is going to equal the ratio of nonsynonymous to synonymous variation between species (i.e. ''D''<sub>n</sub>/''D''<sub>s</sub> = ''P''<sub>n</sub>/''P''<sub>s</sub>). When positive or [[negative selection (natural selection)]] influences nonsynonymous variation, the ratios will no longer equal. The ratio of nonsynonymous to synonymous variation between species is going to be lower than the ratio of nonsynonymous to synonymous variation within species (i.e. ''D''<sub>n</sub>/''D''<sub>s</sub> < ''P''<sub>n</sub>/''P''<sub>s</sub>) when negative selection is at work, and deleterious mutations strongly affect polymorphism. The ratio of nonsynonymous to synonymous variation within species is lower than the ratio of nonsynonymous to synonymous variation between species (i.e. ''D''<sub>n</sub>/''D''<sub>s</sub> > ''P''<sub>n</sub>/''P''<sub>s</sub>) when we observe positive selection. Since mutations under positive selection spread through a population rapidly, they don't contribute to polymorphism but do have an effect on divergence.<ref name=barbadilla>[http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/36/suppl_2/W157.full.pdf+html?sid=6001f1bd-4744-4bce-8837-293e14e69a3c], Barbadilla, A. Casillas, S. Egea, R. 2008. Standard and generalized McDonald-Kreitman test: a website to detect selection by comparing different classes of DNA sites. Nucleic Acids Research 36: 157-162.</ref>
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| Using an equation dervided by Smith and Eyre-Walker, we can estimate the proportion of base substitutions fixed by natural selection, α,<ref name=alpha>{{cite doi|10.1038/4151022a}}</ref> using the following formula:
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| :<math>\alpha = 1 - \frac{D_sP_n}{D_nP_s} </math>
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| Alpha represents the proportion of substitutions driven by positive selection. Alpha can be equal to any number between -∞ and 1. Negative values of alpha are produced by sampling error or violations of the model, such as the segregation of slightly deleterious amino acid mutations.<ref name= adam>[http://www.genetics.org/content/162/4/2017.full.pdf], Eyre-Walker, A. 2002. Changing Effective Population Size and the McDonald-Kreitman Test. Genetics Society of America 162: 2017-2024.</ref> Similar to above, our null hypothesis here is that α=0, and we expect ''D''<sub>n</sub>/''D''<sub>s</sub> to equal ''P''<sub>n</sub>/''P''<sub>s</sub>.<ref name=eyrewalker/>
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| ==The Neutrality Index==
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| The neutrality index (NI) quantifies the direction and degree of departure from neutrality (where ''P''<sub>n</sub>/''P''<sub>s</sub> and ''D''<sub>n</sub>/''D''<sub>s</sub> ratios equal). When assuming that silent mutations are neutral, a neutrality index less than 1 (i.e. NI < 1) indicates negative selection is at work, resulting in an excess of amino acid divergence. This occurs because natural selection is favoring the purifying selection, and the weeding out of deleterious alleles.<ref name= Meiklejohn>[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168952507001102#], Meiklejohns, C. D. Montooth, K. L. Rand, D. M. 2007. Positive and negative selection on the mitochondrial genome. Science Direct 23 (6): 259-263.</ref> Because silent mutations are neutral, a neutrality index greater than 1 (i.e. NI > 1) indicates an excess of nonsilent divergence, which occurs when positive selection is at work in the population. When positive selection is acting on the species, natural selection favors a specific phenotype over other phenotypes, and the favored phenotype begins to go to fixation in the species as the allele frequency for that phenotype increases.<ref name=stoletzki>[http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/28/1/63], Stoletzki, N. Eyre-Walker, A. 2010. Estimation of the Neutrality Index. Molecular Biology and Evolution 28 (1): 63-70.</ref> To find the neutrality index, we can use the following equation:
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| [[File:Neutrality Index Equation.png|thumb|See the McDonald-Kreitman Test|framed|left]]
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| ==Sources of Error with the McDonald-Kreitman Test==
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| One drawback of performing a McDonald–Kreitman test is that the test is vulnerable to error, as with every other statistical test. Many factors can contribute to errors in estimates of the level of adaptive evolution, including presence of slightly deleterious mutations, variation of mutation rates across the genome, variation in coalescent histories across the genome, and changes in the effective population size. All these factors result in α being underestimated.<ref name=baines>[http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/26/3/691], Baines, J. F. Parsch, J. Zhang, Z. 2008. The Influence of Demography and Weak Selection on the McDonald–Kreitman Test: An Empirical Study in Drosophila. Molecular Biology and Evolution 26: 691-698.</ref> However, according to research done by Charlesworth (2008),<ref name=charlesworth/> Andolfatto(2008),<ref name=andolfatto>[http://www.genetics.org/content/180/3/1767], Andolfatto, P. 2008. Controlling Type-I Error of the McDonald-Kreitman Test in Genomewide Scans for Selection on Noncoding DNA. Genetics Society of America 180 (3): 1767-1771.</ref> and Eyre-Walker(2006),<ref name= adam/> none of these factors are significant enough to make scientists believe the McDonald–Kreitman test is unreliable, except for the presence of slightly deleterious mutations in species.
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| In general, the McDoanld-Kreitman test is often thought to be unreliable because of how significantly the test tends to underestimate the degree of adaptive evolution in the presence of slightly deleterious mutations. A slightly deleterious mutation can be defined as a mutation that negative selection acts on only very weakly so that its fate is determined by both selection and random genetic drift.<ref name=charlesworth/> If slightly deleterious mutations are segregating in the population, then it becomes is difficult to detect positive selection and the degree of positive selection is underestimated. Weakly deleterious mutations have a larger chance of contributing to polymorphism than strongly deleterious mutations, but still have low probabilities of fixation. This creates bias in the McDonald–Kreitman test's estimate of the degree of adaptive evolution, resulting in a dramatically lower estimate of α. By contrast, since strongly deleterious mutations contribute to neither polymorphism nor divergence, strongly deleterious mutations do not bias estimates of α.<ref name=messer>[http://0-www.pnas.org.books.redlands.edu/content/110/21/8615], Messer, P. W. Petrov, D. A. 2013. Frequent adaptation and the McDonald–Kreitman test. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110 (21): 8615-8620.</ref> The presence of slightly deleterious mutations is strongly linked to genes that have experienced the greatest reduction in effective population size.<ref name=parsch>[http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/26/3/691.full.pdf+html], Parsch, J. Zhang, Z. Baines, J. 2009. The Influence of Demography and Weak Selection on the McDonald–Kreitman Test: An Empirical Study in Drosophila. Molecular Biology and Evolution 26 (3): 691-698.</ref> This means that soon after a recent reduction in effective population size in a species has occurred, such as a bottleneck, we observe a larger presence of slightly deleterious mutations in the protein-coding regions.<ref name=ellegren>[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1111/j.1558-5646.2008.00560.x/asset/j.1558-5646.2008.00560.x.pdf?v=1&t=hofet08x&s=7aedab873cf04e4d96cf75954e43c2cd7730e158], Ellegren, Hans. 2009. A Selection Model of Molecular Evolution Incorporating the Effective Population Size. Evolution 63(2): 301-305.</ref> We can make a direct connection with the increase in number of slightly deleterious mutations and the recent decrease in effective population size.<ref name="parsch"/> For more information on why population size affects the tendency of slightly deleterious mutations to increase in frequency, refer to the article [[Nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution]].
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| Additionally, as with every statistical test, there is always that chance of having [[type I error]] and [[type II error]] in the McDonald Kreitman test. With statistical tests, we must strive more try to avoid making type I errors, to avoid rejecting the null hypothesis, when it is in fact, true.<ref name=rossman>Rossman, A. J. Chance, B. L. 2012. Workshop Statistics Discovery with Data. John Wiley & Sons: Danvers.</ref> However, the McDonald Kreitman test is very vulnerable to type I error, because of the many factors that can lead to the accidental rejection of the true null hypothesis. These such factors include variation in recombination rate, nonequilibrium demography, small sample sizes, and in comparisons involving more recently diverged species.<ref name=parsch/> All of these factors have the ability to influence the ability of the mcDonald-Kreitman test to detect positive selection, as well as the level of positive selection acting on a species. This inability to correctly determine the level of positive selection acting on a species often leads to a false positive, and the incorrect rejection of the null hypothesis.
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| While performing the McDonald–Kreitman test, scientists also have to avoid making too numerous type II errors. Otherwise, a test's results may be too flawed and its results will be termed useless.
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| ==Error-correcting Mechanisms of the McDonald-Kreitman Test==
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| There continues to be more experimentation with the McDonald–Kreitman test and how to improve the accuracy of the test. The most important error to correct for is the error that α is severely underestimated in the presence of slightly deleterious mutations, as discussed in the previous section "Sources of Error with the McDonald-Kreitman Test." This possible adjustment of the McDonald–Kreitman test includes removing polymorphisms below a specific value from the data set to improve and increase the number of substitutions that occurred due to adaptive evolution.<ref name=charlesworth/> To minimize the impact of slightly deleterious mutations, it has been proposed to exclude polymorphisms that are below a certain cutoff frequency, such as <8% or <5% (there is still much debate about what the best cutoff value should be). By not including polymorphisms under a certain frequency, you can reduce the bias created by slightly deleterious mutations, since less polymorphisms will be counted. This will drive the estimate of α up. Therefore, the degree of adaptive evolution estimated will not be so severely underestimated, deeming the McDonald–Kreitman test to be more reliable.<ref name=messer/>
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| One adjustment necessary is to control for the [[type I error]] in the McDonald–Kreitman test, refer to the discussion of this in previous section "Sources of Error with the McDonald Kreitman Test." One method to avoid type I errors is to avoid using populations that have undergone a recent bottleneck, meaning they have recently undergone a recent decrease in effective population size.<ref name=parsch/> To make the analysis as accurate as possible in the McDonald–Kreitman test, it is best to use large sample sizes, but there is still debate and how large "large" is.<ref name=rossman/> Another method of controlling for type I error, Peter Andolfatto(2008) suggests, is to establish significance levels by coalescent simulation with recombination in genomewide scans for selection on noncoding DNA. By doing this, you will be able to improve the accuracy of your statistical test and avoid any false positive tests. <<ref name=andolfatto/> With all these possible ways to avoid making type I errors, scientists should cautiously choose which populations they are analyzing, to avoid analyzing populations that will lead to inaccurate results.
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| ==See also==
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| *[[Adaptive Evolution]]
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| *[[Directional selection]]
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| *[[Negative selection (natural selection)]]
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| *[[K<sub>a</sub>/K<sub>s</sub> ratio]]
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| ==References==
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| {{reflist}}
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:McDonald-Kreitman test}}
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| [[Category:Phylogenetics]]
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| [[Category:Molecular evolution]]
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| [[Category:Statistical genetics]]
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Doing home improvement with someone you love is very enjoyable. The two of you can spend an entire weekend improving your little love shack. You'll save a ton by doing it on your own! These tips can help you make your project fun and easy.
Add a bit of class and sophistication to your home by building an unusual addition. For example, a library with custom built shelves or a basement converted to a wine cellar may add a useful and classy touch. These impressive additions will not only please you, but they will substantially increase the value of your home.
Using motion sensors on outdoor lighting is a good way to save money on energy. With the motion sensor on most models you can make adjustments to the sensitivity, and they can be manually turned on.
There are many different flooring options out there to try if you need to replace your floor. Instead of looking at stone tile or even linoleum, you can look into vinyl self-adhesive flooring. This peel-and-stick brand of flooring comes in a wide variety of colors and styles. It can look just like stone or wood, and it's very tough, easy to clean up, and it can take a beating. Vinyl flooring comes in two varieties: separate tiles for small areas and large sheets for bigger areas.
You can change the appearance of your appliances in the kitchen more affordably than you might think. Stainless steel is popular right now, but that doesn't mean you should replace all of your appliances. There is spray paint available for your appliances in a lot of different colors. This can be completed easily in one day.
If your project utilizes brick, it is always a smart idea to buy extra materials. Whenever you need to make a repair or add-on to the brick work, it may be hard to locate bricks that match up with the bricks you already have. Brick styles change regularly. Stocking up on extra bricks now can save you a lot of time and effort later.
A room with the proper lighting can be a huge blessing. Bright rooms feel much warmer to the homeowners and visitors. If you need more light, consider installing a second fixture. Just changing the lighting in a room can give it a fresh new look and open it up.
Landscaping is an important element of you home's look, but you could overlook it when thinking about a home improvement project. The front lawn is one of the first things that people see, and you will want this to look exceptional. Maintain the lawn, plant flowers or shrubs to beautify your home.
If your home improvement project is going to inconvenience the neighbors, make sure they know as soon as possible. Significant renovations can mean blocking access to your street as deliveries are made and equipment is moved. If you let your neighbors know ahead of time, they will most likely be less annoyed and inconvenienced.
Lots of homeowners decrease their renovation costs by putting in particleboard or solid wood cabinets without hardware. Fortunately, you are able to get knobs, pulls for the drawers and handles at a hardware store or online. You can choose from everything, from modern knobs to vintage looking pulls and designer hardware, all of which can be easily installed in a few minutes.
Now that you are armed with a few solid tips to guide you, making a sound decision regarding home improvement should seem less daunting. Remember, quality home improvements to your home will not only allow you to have a more desirable space but will also improve the overall value of your home.
If you adored this article and also you would like to get more info about home improvement diy ideas (please click www.homeimprovementdaily.com) generously visit our own web page.