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| In [[quantum computing]], the '''quantum Fourier transform''' is a [[linear transformation]] on [[qubit|quantum bits]], and is the quantum analogue of the [[discrete Fourier transform]]. The quantum Fourier transform is a part of many [[quantum algorithms]], notably [[Shor's algorithm]] for factoring and computing the [[discrete logarithm]], the [[quantum phase estimation algorithm]] for estimating the [[eigenvalue]]s of a [[unitary operator]], and algorithms for the [[hidden subgroup problem]].
| | This is an example of how enlightenment starts to dawn. When we can crack the ego, and focus on much deeper problems, even a car accident can allow fantastic knowledge to flow. I compare my ego to the brakes on the vehicle. When it cracked, there was a great explosion and [http://Search.About.com/?q=consequences consequences]. By entering into my heart, and not my prideful ego, I could discover the real factor for this event. It took what it took to get me to examine the real forces at play.<br><br><br><br>Set up a consultation first if you are thinking about employing a lawyer.Usually, this assessmentshould be free, howevermake certain you clarify this point prior to personal injury advice you head into the conference. If a fee is included, it is most likely that attorneywill charge other chargesas well, like a retainer, and you maywish tomove on as an outcome.<br><br>Attempt to be polite. Let's face it-- yes, you're probably distressed. Yes, you most likely really want a bit more than they're prepared to offer. However do you truly desire to sit there for hours on end trying to budge a dollar or 2? No, naturally not! The accidents claims calculator provides you a rough concept of just how much you need to get, but it's not an utter and complete warranty.<br><br>Fees for pre-settlement lawsuit funding are either done on a month by month basis - like conventional loan - or for one flat, upfront cost. This relies on the lender and the nature of the case. Simply as with a standard loan, if your case is a riskier proposition to reach a final settlement, you might be needed to pay increased costs. It's essential to bear in mind that these fees will take in the amount of your ultimate settlement so it will eventually be lower than exactly what is ultimately awarded, so if you have a way of paying your bills without getting a fee-based loan, you should check out this alternative first.<br><br>There are different conditions you might lose your teeth. In case you loved this article and you would love to receive more details with regards to experienced attorney ([http://www.wattpad.com/user/garyneinstein click the following document]) kindly visit the web page. Since of a personal injury or not enough dental tidiness, this is. Today, there are a lot of professional dental experts which are proficient in adding oral implants. These implants are artificial root, put into your jaw to provide extreme support to your replacement tooth or bridge. These ought to be connected completely with gum tissues. It should likewise hold the bone within the mouth to supply benefit whenever you transfer your head, specifically the jaw. These synthetic implants might extremely last for the lengthy time frame by appropriate routine maintenance of one's neighboring dental professionals.<br><br>There is no length restriction to a formaldemand personal injury law letter. Nevertheless, the more clear and concise it is, the better. It usuallyshould not be more than a couple pages. A letter that is brief and gets to the pointwill certainlyshare that you are major about filinga lawsuit.<br><br>If you are associated with a vehicle mishap, you have to take as lots of photos as you can of the scene. If there is any kind of accident case brought up, these will help you present your case. If you have a legal representative, it will certainly assist them see exactly what occurred. |
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| The quantum Fourier transform can be performed efficiently on a quantum computer, with a particular decomposition into a product of simpler [[unitary matrix|unitary matrices]]. Using a simple decomposition, the discrete Fourier transform can be implemented as a [[quantum circuit]] consisting of only <math>O(n^2)</math> [[Hadamard gate]]s and controlled [[phase shift gate]]s, where <math>n</math> is the number of qubits.<ref>{{cite book | author= [[Michael Nielsen]] and Isaac Chuang | title=Quantum Computation and Quantum Information | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location=Cambridge | year=2000 | isbn=0-521-63503-9 | oclc= 174527496}}</ref> This can be compared with the classical discrete Fourier transform, which takes <math>O(n2^n)</math> gates (where <math>n</math> is the number of bits), which is exponentially more than <math>O(n^2)</math>. However, the quantum Fourier transform acts on a quantum state, whereas the classical Fourier transform acts on a vector, so not every task that uses the classical Fourier transform can take advantage of this exponential speedup.
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| The best quantum Fourier transform algorithms known today require only <math>O(n \log n)</math> gates to achieve an efficient approximation.<ref>L. Hales, S. Hallgren, An improved quantum Fourier transform algorithm and applications, Proceedings of the 41st Annual Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science, p. 515, November 12–14, 2000</ref>
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| == Definition ==
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| The quantum Fourier transform is the classical discrete Fourier transform applied to the vector of amplitudes of a quantum state. The classical (unitary) Fourier transform acts on a [[vector (mathematics and physics)|vector]] in <math>\mathbb{C}^N</math>, (''x''<sub>0</sub>, ..., ''x''<sub>''N''−1</sub>) and maps it to the vector (''y''<sub>0</sub>, ..., ''y''<sub>''N''−1</sub>) according to the formula:
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| :<math>y_k = \frac{1}{\sqrt{N}} \sum_{j=0}^{N-1} x_j \omega^{jk}</math>
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|
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| where <math>\omega = e^{\frac{2 \pi i}{N}}</math> is a primitive ''N''<sup>th</sup> [[root of unity]].
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| Similarly, the quantum Fourier transform acts on a quantum state <math>\sum_{i=0}^{N-1} x_i |i\rangle</math> and maps it to a quantum state <math>\sum_{i=0}^{N-1} y_i |i\rangle</math> according to the formula:
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| :<math>y_k = \frac{1}{\sqrt{N}} \sum_{j=0}^{N-1} x_j \omega^{jk}.</math>
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| This can also be expressed as the map
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| :<math>|j\rangle \mapsto \frac{1}{\sqrt{N}} \sum_{k=0}^{N-1} \omega^{jk} |k\rangle. </math>
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| Equivalently, the quantum Fourier transform can be viewed as a unitary matrix acting on quantum state vectors, where the unitary matrix <math>F_N</math> is given by
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| :<math>
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| F_N = \frac{1}{\sqrt{N}} \begin{bmatrix}
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| 1&1&1&1&\cdots &1 \\
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| 1&\omega&\omega^2&\omega^3&\cdots&\omega^{N-1} \\
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| 1&\omega^2&\omega^4&\omega^6&\cdots&\omega^{2(N-1)}\\ 1&\omega^3&\omega^6&\omega^9&\cdots&\omega^{3(N-1)}\\
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| \vdots&\vdots&\vdots&\vdots&&\vdots\\
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| 1&\omega^{N-1}&\omega^{2(N-1)}&\omega^{3(N-1)}&\cdots&\omega^{(N-1)(N-1)}
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| \end{bmatrix}.
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| </math>
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| == Properties ==
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| === Unitarity ===
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| Most of the properties of the quantum Fourier transform follow from the fact that it is a [[unitary transformation]]. This can be checked by performing [[matrix multiplication]] and ensuring that the relation <math>FF^{\dagger}=F^{\dagger}F=I</math> holds, where <math>F^\dagger</math> is the [[Hermitian adjoint]] of <math>F</math>. Alternately, one can check that vectors of [[norm (mathematics)|norm]] 1 get mapped to vectors of norm 1.
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| From the unitary property it follows that the inverse of the quantum Fourier transform is the Hermitian adjoint of the Fourier matrix, thus <math>F^{-1}=F^{\dagger}</math>. Since there is an efficient quantum circuit implementing the quantum Fourier transform, the circuit can be run in reverse to perform the inverse quantum Fourier transform. Thus both transforms can be efficiently performed on a quantum computer.
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| == Circuit implementation ==
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| [[Image:Quantum Fourier transform on n qubits.svg|600px|thumb|[[Quantum circuit]] representation of the quantum Fourier transform]]
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| The quantum Fourier transform can be approximately implemented for any ''N''; however, the implementation for the case where ''N'' is a power of 2 is much simpler. Suppose ''N'' = 2<sup>''n''</sup>. We have the orthonormal basis consisting of the vectors
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| :<math> |0\rangle, \ldots , |2^n - 1\rangle. </math> | |
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| Each basis state index can be represented in binary form
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| :<math> | x \rangle = | x_1 x_2 \ldots x_n \rangle = | x_1 \rangle \otimes | x_2 \rangle \otimes \cdots \otimes | x_n \rangle</math>
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| where
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| :<math> x = x_1 2^{n-1} + x_2 2^{n-2} +\cdots + x_n 2^0.\quad </math>
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| Similarly, we also adopt the notation
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| :<math> [0. x_1 \ldots x_m] = \sum_{k = 1}^m x_k 2^{-k}.</math>
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| For instance, <math>[0.x_1] = \frac{x_1}{2}</math> and <math>[0.x_1 x_2] = \frac{x_1}{2}+\frac{x_2}{2^2}.</math>
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| With this notation, the action of the quantum Fourier transform can be expressed as:
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| :<math>|x_1 x_2 \ldots x_n \rangle \mapsto \frac{1}{\sqrt{N}} \ \left(|0\rangle + e^{2 \pi i \, [0.x_n] }|1\rangle\right) \otimes \left(|0\rangle + e^{2 \pi i \, [0.x_{n-1} x_n] }|1\rangle\right) \otimes \cdots \otimes \left(|0\rangle + e^{2 \pi i \, [0.x_1 x_2 \ldots x_n] }|1\rangle\right).</math>
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| In other words, the discrete Fourier transform, an operation on ''n''-qubits, can be factored into the tensor product of ''n'' single-qubit operations, suggesting it is easily represented as a [[quantum circuit]]. In fact, each of those single-qubit operations can be implemented efficiently using a [[Hadamard gate]] and [[Quantum_gate#Controlled_gates|controlled]] [[Quantum_gate#Phase_shift_gates|phase gate]]s. The first term requires one Hadamard gate, the next one requires a Hadamard gate and a controlled phase gate, and each following term requires an additional controlled phase gate. Summing up the number of gates gives <math>1 + 2 + \cdots + n = n(n+1)/2 = O(n^2)</math> gates, which is polynomial in the number of qubits.
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| == Example ==
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| Consider the quantum Fourier transform on 3 qubits. It is the following transformation:
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| :<math>|j\rangle \mapsto \frac{1}{\sqrt{2^3}} \sum_{k=0}^{2^3-1} \omega^{jk} |k\rangle, </math>
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| where <math>\omega</math> is a primitive eighth [[root of unity]] satisfying <math>\omega^8=\left(e^{\frac{2\pi i}{8}}\right)^8=1</math> (since <math>N = 2^3 = 8</math>).
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| The matrix representing this transformation on 3 qubits is
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| :<math>
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| F_{2^3} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2^3}} \begin{bmatrix} 1&1&1&1&1&1&1&1 \\
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| 1&\omega&\omega^2&\omega^3&\omega^4&\omega^5&\omega^6&\omega^7 \\
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| 1&\omega^2&\omega^4&\omega^6&\omega^8&\omega^{10}&\omega^{12}&\omega^{14} \\
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| 1&\omega^3&\omega^6&\omega^9&\omega^{12}&\omega^{15}&\omega^{18}&\omega^{21} \\
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| 1&\omega^4&\omega^8&\omega^{12}&\omega^{16}&\omega^{20}&\omega^{24}&\omega^{28} \\
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| 1&\omega^5&\omega^{10}&\omega^{15}&\omega^{20}&\omega^{25}&\omega^{30}&\omega^{35} \\
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| 1&\omega^6&\omega^{12}&\omega^{18}&\omega^{24}&\omega^{30}&\omega^{36}&\omega^{42} \\
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| 1&\omega^7&\omega^{14}&\omega^{21}&\omega^{28}&\omega^{35}&\omega^{42}&\omega^{49} \\
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| \end{bmatrix} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2^3}} \begin{bmatrix} 1&1&1&1&1&1&1&1 \\
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| 1&\omega&\omega^2&\omega^3&\omega^4&\omega^5&\omega^6&\omega^7 \\
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| 1&\omega^2&\omega^4&\omega^6&1&\omega^2&\omega^4&\omega^6 \\
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| 1&\omega^3&\omega^6&\omega&\omega^4&\omega^7&\omega^2&\omega^5 \\
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| 1&\omega^4&1&\omega^4&1&\omega^4&1&\omega^4 \\
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| 1&\omega^5&\omega^2&\omega^7&\omega^4&\omega&\omega^6&\omega^3 \\
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| 1&\omega^6&\omega^4&\omega^2&1&\omega^6&\omega^4&\omega^2 \\
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| 1&\omega^7&\omega^6&\omega^5&\omega^4&\omega^3&\omega^2&\omega \\
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| \end{bmatrix}.
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| </math>
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| The 3-qubit quantum Fourier transform is the following operation:
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| :<math>|x_1, x_2, x_3 \rangle \mapsto \frac{1}{\sqrt{2^3}} \ \left(|0\rangle + e^{2 \pi i \, [0.x_3] }|1\rangle\right) \otimes \left(|0\rangle + e^{2 \pi i \, [0.x_2 x_3] }|1\rangle\right) \otimes \left(|0\rangle + e^{2 \pi i \, [0.x_1 x_2 x_3] }|1\rangle\right).</math>
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| This quantum circuit implements the quantum Fourier transform on the quantum state <math>|x_1,x_2,x_3\rangle</math>.
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| [[File:Quantum Fourier transform on three qubits.svg|550px]]
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| The [[quantum gate]]s used in the circuit above are the [[Quantum_gate#Hadamard_gate|Hadamard gate]] and the [[Quantum_gate#Controlled_gates|controlled]] [[Quantum_gate#Phase_shift_gates|phase gate]] <math>R_\theta</math>.
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| As calculated above, the number of gates used is <math>n(n+1)/2</math> which is equal to 6, for ''n'' = 3.
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| == References ==
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| <references/>
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| * [[K. R. Parthasarathy (probabilist)|K. R. Parthasarathy]], ''Lectures on Quantum Computation and Quantum Error Correcting Codes'' (Indian Statistical Institute, Delhi Center, June 2001)
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| * [[John Preskill]], ''Lecture Notes for Physics 229: Quantum Information and Computation'' (CIT, September 1998)
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| {{quantum computing}}
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Quantum Fourier Transform}}
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| [[Category:Transforms]]
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| [[Category:Quantum algorithms]]
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This is an example of how enlightenment starts to dawn. When we can crack the ego, and focus on much deeper problems, even a car accident can allow fantastic knowledge to flow. I compare my ego to the brakes on the vehicle. When it cracked, there was a great explosion and consequences. By entering into my heart, and not my prideful ego, I could discover the real factor for this event. It took what it took to get me to examine the real forces at play.
Set up a consultation first if you are thinking about employing a lawyer.Usually, this assessmentshould be free, howevermake certain you clarify this point prior to personal injury advice you head into the conference. If a fee is included, it is most likely that attorneywill charge other chargesas well, like a retainer, and you maywish tomove on as an outcome.
Attempt to be polite. Let's face it-- yes, you're probably distressed. Yes, you most likely really want a bit more than they're prepared to offer. However do you truly desire to sit there for hours on end trying to budge a dollar or 2? No, naturally not! The accidents claims calculator provides you a rough concept of just how much you need to get, but it's not an utter and complete warranty.
Fees for pre-settlement lawsuit funding are either done on a month by month basis - like conventional loan - or for one flat, upfront cost. This relies on the lender and the nature of the case. Simply as with a standard loan, if your case is a riskier proposition to reach a final settlement, you might be needed to pay increased costs. It's essential to bear in mind that these fees will take in the amount of your ultimate settlement so it will eventually be lower than exactly what is ultimately awarded, so if you have a way of paying your bills without getting a fee-based loan, you should check out this alternative first.
There are different conditions you might lose your teeth. In case you loved this article and you would love to receive more details with regards to experienced attorney (click the following document) kindly visit the web page. Since of a personal injury or not enough dental tidiness, this is. Today, there are a lot of professional dental experts which are proficient in adding oral implants. These implants are artificial root, put into your jaw to provide extreme support to your replacement tooth or bridge. These ought to be connected completely with gum tissues. It should likewise hold the bone within the mouth to supply benefit whenever you transfer your head, specifically the jaw. These synthetic implants might extremely last for the lengthy time frame by appropriate routine maintenance of one's neighboring dental professionals.
There is no length restriction to a formaldemand personal injury law letter. Nevertheless, the more clear and concise it is, the better. It usuallyshould not be more than a couple pages. A letter that is brief and gets to the pointwill certainlyshare that you are major about filinga lawsuit.
If you are associated with a vehicle mishap, you have to take as lots of photos as you can of the scene. If there is any kind of accident case brought up, these will help you present your case. If you have a legal representative, it will certainly assist them see exactly what occurred.