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{{Infobox scientist
|name =Gustav Fechner
|image =Gustav Fechner.jpg
|image_size =250px
|caption=
|birth_name=Gustav Theodor Fechner
|birth_date = {{birth date|1801|04|19}}
|birth_place = [[Żarki Wielkie|Groß Särchen]] (near [[Bad Muskau|Muskau]]), [[Electorate of Saxony|Saxony]], [[Holy Roman Empire]]
|death_date = {{death date and age|1887|11|18|1801|04|19}}
|death_place = [[Leipzig]], [[Kingdom of Saxony|Saxony]]
|residence =
|citizenship =
|nationality = [[Germany|German]]
|ethnicity =
|field = [[Psychology]]
|work_institutions =
|alma_mater =
|doctoral_advisor =
|doctoral_students =
|known_for =
|author_abbrev_bot =
|author_abbrev_zoo =
|influences =
|influenced = [[Gerardus Heymans]]<br>[[Wilhelm Wundt]]<br>[[Alfred North Whitehead]]<br>[[Charles Hartshorne]]
|prizes =
|religion =
|footnotes =
|signature =
}}
 
'''Gustav Theodor Fechner''' (April 19, 1801 – November 18, 1887), was a [[Germany|German]] [[philosopher]], [[physicist]]  and experimental [[psychologist]]. An early pioneer in experimental psychology and founder of [[psychophysics]], he inspired many 20th century scientists and philosophers. He is also credited with demonstrating the non-linear relationship between psychological sensation and the physical intensity of a stimulus via the formula: <math>S = K \ln I</math>, which became known as the [[Weber–Fechner law]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Fancher |first=R. E. |year=1996 |title=Pioneers of Psychology |edition=3rd |location=New York |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=0-393-96994-0 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation
|pmid = 15171801
|last=Sheynin
|first=Oscar
|publication-date=May 2004
|year=2004
|title=Fechner as a statistician.
|volume=57
|issue=Pt 1
|periodical=[[British journal of mathematical and statistical psychology|The British journal of mathematical and statistical psychology]]
|pages=53–72
|doi = 10.1348/000711004849196
}}</ref>
 
== Early life and scientific career ==
 
Fechner was born at [[Żarki Wielkie|Groß Särchen]], near [[Muskau]], in [[Lower Lusatia]], where his father was a [[pastor]]. Despite being raised by his religious father, Fechner became an atheist in later life.<ref>{{cite book|title=Nature from within: Gustav Theodor Fechner and his Psychophysical Worldview|year=2004|publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press|isbn=9780822970774|page=21|author=Michael Heidelberger|accessdate=1 May 2013|chapter=1: Life and Work|quote=The study of medicine also contributed to a loss of religious faith and to becoming atheist.}}</ref> He was educated first at [[Sorau]] (now [[Żary]] in Western [[Poland]]). In 1817 he studied of medicine at the Medizinisch-Chirurgische Akademie in [[Dresden]] and from 1818 at the [[University of Leipzig]], the city in which he spent the rest of his life.<ref>[http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/people/data?id=per68 Fechner, Gustav Theodor at vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de]</ref> In 1834 he was appointed professor of [[physics]]. But in 1839, he contracted an eye disorder while studying the phenomena of [[color]] and [[Visual perception|vision]], and, after much suffering, resigned. Subsequently recovering, he turned to the study of the [[mind]] and its relations with the body, giving public lectures on the subjects dealt with in his books.
 
== Contributions ==
 
Gustav Fechner published chemical and physical papers, and translated chemical works by [[J. B. Biot]] and [[Louis Jacques Thénard]] from the [[French language]]. A different but essential side of his character is seen in his [[poem]]s and [[humor]]ous pieces, such as the ''Vergleichende Anatomie der Engel'' (1825), written under the pseudonym of "Dr. Mises."
 
Fechner's epoch-making work was his ''Elemente der Psychophysik'' (1860). He starts from the [[Monism|monistic]] thought that bodily facts and conscious facts, though not reducible one to the other, are different sides of one reality. His originality lies in trying to discover an exact mathematical relation between them. The most famous outcome of his inquiries is the law known as the [[Weber–Fechner law]] which may be expressed as follows:
 
:"In order that the intensity of a sensation may increase in arithmetical progression, the stimulus must increase in geometrical progression."
 
Though holding good within certain limits only, the law has been found to be immensely useful. Fechner's law implies that sensation is a logarithmic function of physical intensity, which is impossible due to the logarithm's singularity at zero; therefore, [[Stanley Smith Stevens|S. S. Stevens]] proposed the more mathematically plausible power-law relation of sensation to intensity in his famous [[Stevens' power law|1961 paper]] entitled "To Honor Fechner and Repeal His Law."
 
Fechner's general formula for getting at the number of units in any sensation is ''S'' =&nbsp;''c''&nbsp;log&nbsp;''R'', where ''S'' stands for the sensation, ''R'' for the stimulus numerically estimated, and ''c'' for a constant that must be separately determined by experiment in each particular order of sensibility. Fechner's reasoning has been criticized on the grounds that although stimuli are composite, sensations are not. "Every sensation," says [[William James]], "presents itself as an indivisible unit; and it is quite impossible to read any clear meaning into the notion that they are masses of units combined."
 
=== The Fechner color effect ===
 
In 1838, he also studied the still-mysterious perceptual illusion of what is still called the [[Fechner color|Fechner color effect]], whereby colors are seen in a moving pattern of black and white. The English journalist and amateur scientist [[Charles Benham]], in 1894, enabled English-speakers to learn of the effect through the invention of [[Benham's top|the spinning top that bears his name]]. Whether Fechner and Benham ever actually met face to face for any reason is not known.
 
=== The median ===
In 1878 Fechner published a paper in which he developed the notion of the median. He later delved into [[experimental aesthetics]] and thought to determine the shapes and dimensions of aesthetically pleasing objects. He mainly used the sizes of paintings as his data base. In his 1876 ''Vorschule der Aesthetik'' he used the method of extreme ranks for subjective judgements.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://statprob.com/encyclopedia/gustavtheodorfechner.html |title=Gustav Theodor Fechner |author=Michael Heidelberger |publisher=/statprob.com |date= |accessdate=5 January 2014}}</ref>
 
Fechner is generally credited with introducing the [[median]] into the formal analysis of data.<ref name="keynesProb">Keynes, John Maynard; ''A Treatise on Probability'' (1921), Pt II Ch XVII §5 (p 201).</ref>
 
=== Synesthesia ===
In 1871 Fechner reported the first empirical survey of coloured letter photisms among 73 [[synesthesia|synesthetes]].<ref>Fechner, Th. (1871) ''Vorschule der Aesthetik''. Leipzig: Breitkopf und Hartel.</ref><ref>Campen, Cretien van (1996). De verwarring der zintuigen. Artistieke en psychologische experimenten met synesthesie. ''Psychologie & Maatschappij'', vol. 20, nr. 1, pp. 10–26.</ref> His work was followed in the 1880s by that of [[Francis Galton]].<ref name="galton1880b">{{cite journal |author=Galton F |title=Visualized Numerals |journal=Nature |volume=21 |issue= 543|pages=494–5 |year=1880 |month= |pmid= |doi= 10.1038/021494e0|url=}}</ref><ref name="galton1880a">{{cite journal |author=Galton F |title=Visualized Numerals |journal=Nature |volume=21 |issue= 533|pages=252–6 |year=1880 |month= |pmid= |doi= 10.1038/021252a0|url=}}</ref><ref name="galton1883">{{cite book |author=Galton F. |title=Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development |publisher=Macmillan |location= |year=1883 |pages= |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |url=http://galton.org/books/human-faculty/ |accessdate=2008-06-17}}</ref>
 
=== Corpus Callosum Split ===
One of Fechner's speculations about consciousness dealt with brain. During his time, it was known that the brain is bilaterally symmetrical and that there is a deep division between the two halves that are linked by a connecting band of fibers called the corpus callosum. Ergo, Fechner speculated that if the corpus callosum were split, two separate streams of consciousness would result - the mind would become two. Yet, Fechner believed that his theory would never be tested; he was incorrect. During the mid-twentieth century, Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga worked on epileptic patients with sectioned corpus callosum and observed that Fechner's idea was correct.<ref>[Gazzinga, M.S (1970). The bisected brain. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts]</ref>
 
=== Golden Section Hypothesis ===
Fechner constructed ten rectangles with different ratios of width to length and asked numerous observers to choose the "best" and "worst" rectangle shape. He was concerned with the visual appeal of rectangles with different proportions. The rectangles chosen as "best" by the largest number of participants had a ratio of 0.62 (between 3:5 and 5:8). This became known as the "golden section" and referred to the ratio of a rectangle's width to length that is most appealing to the eye. [[Carl Stumpf]] partook in this study as a participant.
 
== Influence ==
 
Fechner, along with [[Wilhelm Wundt]] and [[Hermann von Helmholtz]], is recognized as one of the founders of modern experimental [[psychology]]. His clearest contribution was the demonstration that because the mind was susceptible to measurement and mathematical treatment, psychology had the potential to become a quantified science. Theorists such as [[Immanuel Kant]] had long stated that this was impossible, and that therefore, a science of psychology was also impossible.
 
Though he had a vast influence on [[psychophysics]], the actual disciples of his general philosophy were few. [[Ernst Mach]] was inspired by his work on psychophysics.<ref>Pojman, Paul, "Ernst Mach", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2011 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2011/entries/ernst-mach/></ref> [[William James]] also admired his work: in 1904, he wrote an admiring introduction to the English translation of Fechner's ''Büchlein vom Leben nach dem Tode'' (''Little Book of Life After Death'').
 
Fechner's world concept was highly [[Animism|animistic]]. He felt the thrill of life everywhere, in plants, earth, stars, the total universe. Man stands midway between the souls of plants and the souls of stars, who are angels.<ref>{{Citation
|pmid = 11610088
|last=Marshall
|first=M E
|publication-date=Jan 1969
|year=1969
|title=Gustav Fechner, Dr. Mises, and the comparative anatomy of angels.
|volume=5
|issue=1
|periodical=Journal of the history of the behavioral sciences
|pages=39–58
|doi = 10.1002/1520-6696(196901)5:1<39::AID-JHBS2300050105>3.0.CO;2-C
}}</ref> God, the soul of the universe, must be conceived as having an existence analogous to men. Natural laws are just the modes of the unfolding of God's perfection. In his last work Fechner, aged but full of hope, contrasts this joyous "daylight view" of the world with the dead, dreary "night view" of [[materialism]]. Fechner's work in [[aesthetics]] is also important. He conducted experiments to show that certain abstract forms and proportions are naturally pleasing to our senses, and gave some new illustrations of the working of aesthetic association. [[Charles Hartshorne]] saw him as a predecessor on his and [[Alfred North Whitehead]]'s philosophy and regretted that Fechner's philosophical work had been neglected for so long.<ref>For Hartshorne's appreciation of Fechner see his [http://www.anthonyflood.com/hartshorneaquinas.htm ''Aquinas to Whitehead – Seven Centuries of Metafysics of Religion'']. Hartshorne also comments that William James failed to do justice to the theological aspects of Fechner's work. Hartshorne saw also resemblances with the work of Fechner's contemporary [[Jules Lequier]]. See also: Hartshorne – Reese (ed.) ''Philosophers speak of God''.</ref>
 
Fechner's position in reference to predecessors and contemporaries is not very sharply defined. He was remotely a disciple of [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling|Schelling]], learnt much from [[Benedict de Spinoza]], [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]], [[Johann Friedrich Herbart]], [[Arthur Schopenhauer]], and [[Christian Hermann Weisse]], and decidedly rejected [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Georg Hegel]] and the [[Monad (philosophy)|monad]]ism of [[Rudolf Hermann Lotze]].
 
=== Fechner Day ===
It is claimed that, on the morning of 22 October 1850, Fechner awoke with a sudden new insight into how to study the mind. Moving away from Wundtarian introspection and basing his work on that of Weber, he developed his [[psychophysics|psychophysical]] [[Weber-Fechner Law|Fechner scale]]. Each year, psychophysicists celebrate 22 October as the anniversary of Fechner's new insight as ''Fechner Day''<ref>Kreuger, L. E. (1993) Personal Communication. ref History of Psychology 4th edition David Hothersal 2004 ISBN 9780072849653</ref> Celebrations, organized by the International Society for Psychophysics, were held in Fechner's home city of [[Leipzig]], to mark Fechner Day in 2001.{{citation needed|date=December 2013}}
 
== Works ==
 
* ''Praemissae ad theoriam organismi generalem'' ("Advances in the general theory of organisms") (1823).
* (Dr. Mises) ''Stapelia mixta'' (1824). [http://books.google.com/books?id=uO4PAAAAYAAJ Google (Harvard)]
* ''Resultate der bis jetzt unternommenen Pflanzenanalysen'' ("Results of plant analyses undertaken to date")  (1829). [http://books.google.com/books?id=ONVIf3eOBy0C Google (Stanford)]
* ''Maassbestimmungen über die galvanische Kette'' (1831).
* (Dr. Mises) ''Schutzmittel für die Cholera'' ("Protective equipment for cholera") (1832). [http://books.google.com/books?id=YBkQAAAAYAAJ Google (Harvard)] — [http://books.google.com/books?id=4dlGAAAAMAAJ Google (UWisc)]
* ''Repertorium der Experimentalphysik'' (1832). 3 volumes.
**<small>Volume 1</small>. [http://books.google.com/books?id=J3gIAAAAIAAJ Google (NYPL)] — [http://books.google.com/books?id=HhoAAAAAQAAJ Google (Oxford)]
**<small>Volume 2</small>. [http://books.google.com/books?id=rm8IAAAAIAAJ Google (NYPL)] — [http://books.google.com/books?id=NBoAAAAAQAAJ Google (Oxford)]
**<small>Volume 3</small>. [http://books.google.com/books?id=0YIIAAAAIAAJ Google (NYPL)] — [http://books.google.com/books?id=NRoAAAAAQAAJ Google (Oxford)]
* (ed.) ''Das Hauslexicon. Vollständiges Handbuch praktischer Lebenskenntnisse für alle Stände'' (1834–38). 8 volumes.
* ''Das Büchlein vom Leben nach dem Tode'' (1836). <small>6th ed.</small>, 1906. [http://books.google.com/books?id=vS0RAAAAYAAJ Google (Harvard)] — [http://books.google.com/books?id=4QIPAAAAIAAJ Google (NYPL)]
** {{en icon}} ''On Life After Death'' (1882). [http://books.google.com/books?id=GjcCAAAAQAAJ Google (Oxford)] — [http://www.archive.org/details/onlifeafterdeath00fechuoft IA (UToronto)] <small>2nd ed.</small>, 1906. [http://books.google.com/books?id=dTE3AAAAMAAJ Google (UMich)] <small>3rd ed.</small>, 1914. [http://www.archive.org/details/onlifeafterdeath00fech IA (UIllinois)]
** {{en icon}} ''The Little Book of Life After Death'' (1904). [http://www.archive.org/details/littlebookoflife00fechuoft IA (UToronto)] 1905, [http://books.google.com/books?id=GsVGAAAAIAAJ Google (UCal)] — [http://www.archive.org/details/littlebookoflife00fechrich IA (Ucal)] — [http://www.archive.org/details/thelittlebookof00fechuoft IA (UToronto)]
* (Dr. Mises) ''Gedichte'' (1841). [http://books.google.com/books?id=HnkHAAAAQAAJ Google (Oxford)]
* ''Ueber das höchste Gut'' ("Concerning the Highest Good") (1846). [http://books.google.com/books?id=geZ2zFi9Hu8C Google (Stanford)]
* (Dr. Mises) ''Nanna oder über das Seelenleben der Pflanzen'' (1848). <small>2nd ed.</small>, 1899. <small>3rd ed.</small>, 1903. [http://books.google.com/books?id=SZAZAAAAMAAJ Google (UMich)] <small>4th ed.</small>, 1908. [http://books.google.com/books?id=rC0RAAAAYAAJ Google (Harvard)]
* ''Zend-Avesta oder über die Dinge des Himmels und des Jenseits'' (1851). 3 volumes. <small>3rd ed.</small>, 1906. [http://books.google.com/books?id=-xkRAAAAYAAJ Google (Harvard)]
* ''Ueber die physikalische und philosophische Atomenlehre'' (1855). <small>2nd ed.</small>, 1864. [http://books.google.com/books?id=RwpTQbECAEUC Google (Stanford)]
* ''Professor Schleiden und der Mond'' (1856). [http://books.google.com/books?id=Yus8IQn2i_UC Google (UMich)]
* ''Elemente der Psychophysik'' (1860). 2 volumes. <small>Volume 1</small>. [http://books.google.com/books?id=C1cOAAAAQAAJ Google (ULausanne)] <small>Volume 2</small>. [http://books.google.com/books?id=oX4NAAAAYAAJ Google (NYPL)]
* ''Ueber die Seelenfrage''  ("Concerning the Soul") (1861). [http://books.google.com/books?id=cxAOAAAAYAAJ Google (NYPL)] — [http://books.google.com/books?id=42tHAAAAIAAJ Google (UCal)] — [http://books.google.com/books?id=boAZAAAAMAAJ Google (UMich)] <small>2nd ed.</small>, 1907. [http://books.google.com/books?id=Xi0RAAAAYAAJ Google (Harvard)]
* ''Die drei Motive und Gründe des Glaubens'' ("The three motives and reasons of faith") (1863). [http://books.google.com/books?id=akEOAAAAYAAJ Google (Harvard)] — [http://books.google.com/books?id=ZuwOAAAAIAAJ Google (NYPL)]
* ''Einige Ideen zur Schöpfungs- und Entwickelungsgeschichte der Organismen'' (1873). [http://books.google.com/books?id=Ud44AAAAMAAJ Google (UMich)]
* (Dr. Mises) ''[[Kleine Schriften]]'' (1875). [http://books.google.com/books?id=9GIZAAAAMAAJ Google (UMich)]
* ''Erinnerungen an die letzen Tage der Odlehre und ihres Urhebers'' (1876). [http://books.google.com/books?id=sjsOAAAAYAAJ Google (Harvard)]
* ''Vorschule der Aesthetik'' (1876). 2 Volumes. [http://books.google.com/books?id=vxoRAAAAYAAJ Google (Harvard)]
* ''In Sachen der Psychophysik'' (1877). [http://books.google.com/books?id=V8lNaXjfkOIC Google (Stanford)]
* ''Die Tagesansicht gegenüber der Nachtansicht'' (1879). [http://books.google.com/books?id=AoINAAAAQAAJ Google (Oxford)] <small>2nd ed.</small>, 1904. [http://books.google.com/books?id=55TMyeBCiW8C Google (Stanford)]
* ''Revision der Hauptpuncte der Psychophysik'' (1882). [http://books.google.com/books?id=RhoRAAAAYAAJ Google (Harvard)]
*''Kollektivmasslehre'' (1897). [http://books.google.com/books?id=RjYJAAAAIAAJ Google (NYPL)]
 
== References ==
 
{{reflist}}
 
== Further reading ==
 
* Heidelberger, M. (2001) Gustav Theodor Fechner, ''Statisticians of the Centuries'' (ed. C. C. Heyde and E. Seneta) pp.&nbsp;142–147. New York: [[Springer Verlag]], 2001.
* Michael Heidelberger. ''Nature From Within: Gustav Theodor Fechner and his Psychophysical Worldview'' Trans. Cynthia Klohr. Pittsburgh, PA: [[University of Pittsburgh Press]], 2004. ISBN 0-822-9421-00
* Stephen M Stigler. ''The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900'', Cambridge, MA: [[Harvard University Press]], 1986. pp.&nbsp;242–254.
 
== External links ==
 
* Works of [http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/index.php?id=19&autorid=161&autor_vorname=+Gustav+Theodor&autor_nachname=Fechner&cHash=b31bbae2c6 Gustav Theodor Fechner] at Projekt Gutenberg-DE. (German)
* Excerpt from [http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Fechner/ ''Elements of Psychophysics''] from the Classics in the History of Psychology website.
* Robert H. Wozniak’s [http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Fechner/wozniak.htm Introduction to ''Elemente der Psychophysik''.]
* [http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/people/data?id=per68 Biography, bibliography and digitized sources] in the [[Virtual Laboratory]] of the [[Max Planck Institute for the History of Science]]
* Granville Stanley 1912 [http://archive.org/stream/foundersofmodern00halluoft#page/124/mode/2up 'Founders of modern psychology''] p.&nbsp;125ff archive.org
* Gustav Theodor Fechner 1904 [http://archive.org/details/littlebookoflife00fechuoft ''The Little Book of Life after Death''] Forward by William James
* Gustav Theodor Fechner 1908 [http://archive.org/details/livingword00worcrich ''The Living Word'']
* [http://statprob.com/encyclopedia/gustavtheodorfechner.html Gustav Theodor Fechner] at statprob.com
 
{{Psychology}}
 
{{Authority control|VIAF=17300276}}
 
{{Persondata
| NAME              = Fechner, Gustav
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = German Scientist
| DATE OF BIRTH    = 1801-04-19
| PLACE OF BIRTH    = [[Żarki Wielkie|Groß Särchen]], Germany
| DATE OF DEATH    = 1887-11-18
| PLACE OF DEATH    = [[Leipzig]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Fechner, Gustav}}
[[Category:1801 births]]
[[Category:1887 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Żary County]]
[[Category:German atheists]]
[[Category:German statisticians]]
[[Category:German psychologists]]
[[Category:Experimental psychologists]]
[[Category:People from the Province of Silesia]]
[[Category:University of Leipzig alumni]]
[[Category:University of Leipzig faculty]]
[[Category:People educated at the Kreuzschule]]

Revision as of 04:01, 31 January 2014

Template:Infobox scientist

Gustav Theodor Fechner (April 19, 1801 – November 18, 1887), was a German philosopher, physicist and experimental psychologist. An early pioneer in experimental psychology and founder of psychophysics, he inspired many 20th century scientists and philosophers. He is also credited with demonstrating the non-linear relationship between psychological sensation and the physical intensity of a stimulus via the formula: , which became known as the Weber–Fechner law.[1][2]

Early life and scientific career

Fechner was born at Groß Särchen, near Muskau, in Lower Lusatia, where his father was a pastor. Despite being raised by his religious father, Fechner became an atheist in later life.[3] He was educated first at Sorau (now Żary in Western Poland). In 1817 he studied of medicine at the Medizinisch-Chirurgische Akademie in Dresden and from 1818 at the University of Leipzig, the city in which he spent the rest of his life.[4] In 1834 he was appointed professor of physics. But in 1839, he contracted an eye disorder while studying the phenomena of color and vision, and, after much suffering, resigned. Subsequently recovering, he turned to the study of the mind and its relations with the body, giving public lectures on the subjects dealt with in his books.

Contributions

Gustav Fechner published chemical and physical papers, and translated chemical works by J. B. Biot and Louis Jacques Thénard from the French language. A different but essential side of his character is seen in his poems and humorous pieces, such as the Vergleichende Anatomie der Engel (1825), written under the pseudonym of "Dr. Mises."

Fechner's epoch-making work was his Elemente der Psychophysik (1860). He starts from the monistic thought that bodily facts and conscious facts, though not reducible one to the other, are different sides of one reality. His originality lies in trying to discover an exact mathematical relation between them. The most famous outcome of his inquiries is the law known as the Weber–Fechner law which may be expressed as follows:

"In order that the intensity of a sensation may increase in arithmetical progression, the stimulus must increase in geometrical progression."

Though holding good within certain limits only, the law has been found to be immensely useful. Fechner's law implies that sensation is a logarithmic function of physical intensity, which is impossible due to the logarithm's singularity at zero; therefore, S. S. Stevens proposed the more mathematically plausible power-law relation of sensation to intensity in his famous 1961 paper entitled "To Honor Fechner and Repeal His Law."

Fechner's general formula for getting at the number of units in any sensation is S = c log R, where S stands for the sensation, R for the stimulus numerically estimated, and c for a constant that must be separately determined by experiment in each particular order of sensibility. Fechner's reasoning has been criticized on the grounds that although stimuli are composite, sensations are not. "Every sensation," says William James, "presents itself as an indivisible unit; and it is quite impossible to read any clear meaning into the notion that they are masses of units combined."

The Fechner color effect

In 1838, he also studied the still-mysterious perceptual illusion of what is still called the Fechner color effect, whereby colors are seen in a moving pattern of black and white. The English journalist and amateur scientist Charles Benham, in 1894, enabled English-speakers to learn of the effect through the invention of the spinning top that bears his name. Whether Fechner and Benham ever actually met face to face for any reason is not known.

The median

In 1878 Fechner published a paper in which he developed the notion of the median. He later delved into experimental aesthetics and thought to determine the shapes and dimensions of aesthetically pleasing objects. He mainly used the sizes of paintings as his data base. In his 1876 Vorschule der Aesthetik he used the method of extreme ranks for subjective judgements.[5]

Fechner is generally credited with introducing the median into the formal analysis of data.[6]

Synesthesia

In 1871 Fechner reported the first empirical survey of coloured letter photisms among 73 synesthetes.[7][8] His work was followed in the 1880s by that of Francis Galton.[9][10][11]

Corpus Callosum Split

One of Fechner's speculations about consciousness dealt with brain. During his time, it was known that the brain is bilaterally symmetrical and that there is a deep division between the two halves that are linked by a connecting band of fibers called the corpus callosum. Ergo, Fechner speculated that if the corpus callosum were split, two separate streams of consciousness would result - the mind would become two. Yet, Fechner believed that his theory would never be tested; he was incorrect. During the mid-twentieth century, Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga worked on epileptic patients with sectioned corpus callosum and observed that Fechner's idea was correct.[12]

Golden Section Hypothesis

Fechner constructed ten rectangles with different ratios of width to length and asked numerous observers to choose the "best" and "worst" rectangle shape. He was concerned with the visual appeal of rectangles with different proportions. The rectangles chosen as "best" by the largest number of participants had a ratio of 0.62 (between 3:5 and 5:8). This became known as the "golden section" and referred to the ratio of a rectangle's width to length that is most appealing to the eye. Carl Stumpf partook in this study as a participant.

Influence

Fechner, along with Wilhelm Wundt and Hermann von Helmholtz, is recognized as one of the founders of modern experimental psychology. His clearest contribution was the demonstration that because the mind was susceptible to measurement and mathematical treatment, psychology had the potential to become a quantified science. Theorists such as Immanuel Kant had long stated that this was impossible, and that therefore, a science of psychology was also impossible.

Though he had a vast influence on psychophysics, the actual disciples of his general philosophy were few. Ernst Mach was inspired by his work on psychophysics.[13] William James also admired his work: in 1904, he wrote an admiring introduction to the English translation of Fechner's Büchlein vom Leben nach dem Tode (Little Book of Life After Death).

Fechner's world concept was highly animistic. He felt the thrill of life everywhere, in plants, earth, stars, the total universe. Man stands midway between the souls of plants and the souls of stars, who are angels.[14] God, the soul of the universe, must be conceived as having an existence analogous to men. Natural laws are just the modes of the unfolding of God's perfection. In his last work Fechner, aged but full of hope, contrasts this joyous "daylight view" of the world with the dead, dreary "night view" of materialism. Fechner's work in aesthetics is also important. He conducted experiments to show that certain abstract forms and proportions are naturally pleasing to our senses, and gave some new illustrations of the working of aesthetic association. Charles Hartshorne saw him as a predecessor on his and Alfred North Whitehead's philosophy and regretted that Fechner's philosophical work had been neglected for so long.[15]

Fechner's position in reference to predecessors and contemporaries is not very sharply defined. He was remotely a disciple of Schelling, learnt much from Benedict de Spinoza, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Johann Friedrich Herbart, Arthur Schopenhauer, and Christian Hermann Weisse, and decidedly rejected Georg Hegel and the monadism of Rudolf Hermann Lotze.

Fechner Day

It is claimed that, on the morning of 22 October 1850, Fechner awoke with a sudden new insight into how to study the mind. Moving away from Wundtarian introspection and basing his work on that of Weber, he developed his psychophysical Fechner scale. Each year, psychophysicists celebrate 22 October as the anniversary of Fechner's new insight as Fechner Day[16] Celebrations, organized by the International Society for Psychophysics, were held in Fechner's home city of Leipzig, to mark Fechner Day in 2001.Potter or Ceramic Artist Truman Bedell from Rexton, has interests which include ceramics, best property developers in singapore developers in singapore and scrabble. Was especially enthused after visiting Alejandro de Humboldt National Park.

Works

References

43 year old Petroleum Engineer Harry from Deep River, usually spends time with hobbies and interests like renting movies, property developers in singapore new condominium and vehicle racing. Constantly enjoys going to destinations like Camino Real de Tierra Adentro.

Further reading

  • Heidelberger, M. (2001) Gustav Theodor Fechner, Statisticians of the Centuries (ed. C. C. Heyde and E. Seneta) pp. 142–147. New York: Springer Verlag, 2001.
  • Michael Heidelberger. Nature From Within: Gustav Theodor Fechner and his Psychophysical Worldview Trans. Cynthia Klohr. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2004. ISBN 0-822-9421-00
  • Stephen M Stigler. The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986. pp. 242–254.

External links

Template:Psychology

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Agents need to be very resourceful and so they have to work doubly onerous to succeed in out to extra consumers as a result of when the market swings, it turns into very aggressive," said PropNex Chief Executive Mohamed Ismail. "Beforehand, an agent might focus on one space, comparable to HDB, however at this time you may't." An motion for misrepresentation arises beneath the law of tort. A Misrepresentation happens when the Representor (Property Agent) makes a false assertion of existing truth with data of its falsity and with the intention that the Representee (Buyer or Seller) ought to act on it with the consequence that the Representee does act on it to his detriment. Metropolis & South West (D01-08) Tiong Bahru MRT Quiet C/Room F/Furnished w AC No Agent Price

On February 19 we had an appointment with the proprietor and his agent (A and H!) at the condominium to hand over the keys. They went by means of all the things with a wonderful tooth comb. An important lesson we learned over all this is that you simply MUST ENGAGE YOUR PERSONAL AGENT and never rely on the homeowners agent as his priority is to the proprietor not you. Nevertheless, last night time my own agent called me and informed me suddenly that ECG instructed them a buyer goes handy them a check within the morning, so we higher act fast or we may lose the property. Stamp responsibility is to be paid inside 14 days from the date of acceptance of the OTP or Sale and buy a house in singapore (click hyperlink) (S&P) Settlement. For more information, please go to www.iras.gov.sg - Gown Up Your House Woodlands East Industrial & Industrial Affiliation

There may also be a Code of Ethics and a Skilled Conduct Commonplace, as well as the introduction of disciplinary motion in opposition to errant brokers/businesses and dispute decision mechanisms. Preparations shall be made to manage the transition of existing agencies and agents to these new standards, which have but to be finalized. The Proposed Enchancment in High quality for Actual Property Businesses Wheelock Properties put up 95 items of The Panorama in Ang Mo Kio for balloting. With a reduction of 12 p.c, they claimed to promote 80 to eighty five units. Whereas developers are clearing their existing stock, every month there are new projects acquiring their HIGH and new sites released by the government to construct more private housing. The due date of each rental payment; or

To know who pays actual property commissions - whether or not it's sellers or buyers or both or if it is Landlord's or Tenant's or both Divisions vary. All Brokers work on a commission scheme that is determined by the experience, efficiency and various other elements equivalent to recruitment and many others. New brokers can receive from a range of 60%-70% of the full fee received by them from the closure of a deal. High producing brokers would possibly obtain 100% and pay the company (broker) a desk fee. Everybody else falls somewhere in between. Kindly discuss with the FAQ part of the CEA web site-www.cea.gov.sg Co-Broking / sharing of fee There isn't a set formulation. This is based on the demand and supply circumstances in the market. present agents have tertiary education.

Template:Persondata

  1. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  2. ↑ Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
  3. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  4. ↑ Fechner, Gustav Theodor at vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de
  5. ↑ Template:Cite web
  6. ↑ Keynes, John Maynard; A Treatise on Probability (1921), Pt II Ch XVII §5 (p 201).
  7. ↑ Fechner, Th. (1871) Vorschule der Aesthetik. Leipzig: Breitkopf und Hartel.
  8. ↑ Campen, Cretien van (1996). De verwarring der zintuigen. Artistieke en psychologische experimenten met synesthesie. Psychologie & Maatschappij, vol. 20, nr. 1, pp. 10–26.
  9. ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  10. ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  11. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  12. ↑ [Gazzinga, M.S (1970). The bisected brain. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts]
  13. ↑ Pojman, Paul, "Ernst Mach", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2011 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2011/entries/ernst-mach/>
  14. ↑ Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
  15. ↑ For Hartshorne's appreciation of Fechner see his Aquinas to Whitehead – Seven Centuries of Metafysics of Religion. Hartshorne also comments that William James failed to do justice to the theological aspects of Fechner's work. Hartshorne saw also resemblances with the work of Fechner's contemporary Jules Lequier. See also: Hartshorne – Reese (ed.) Philosophers speak of God.
  16. ↑ Kreuger, L. E. (1993) Personal Communication. ref History of Psychology 4th edition David Hothersal 2004 ISBN 9780072849653
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