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'''Automatic label placement''', sometimes called '''text placement''' or '''name placement''', comprises the computer methods of placing labels automatically on a map or chart. This is related to the [[Labeling (map design)|typographic design of such labels]]. | |||
The typical features depicted on a geographic [[map]] are line features (e.g. roads), area features (countries, parcels, forests, lakes, etc.), and point features (villages, cities, etc.). In addition to depicting the map's features in a geographically accurate manner, it is of critical importance to place the names that identify these features, in a way that the reader knows instantly which name describes which feature. | |||
Automatic text placement is one of the most difficult, complex, and time-consuming problems in mapmaking and [[Geographic information system|GIS (Geographic Information System)]]. Other kinds of computer-generated graphics – like [[chart]]s, [[graph of a function|graph]]s etc. – require good placement of labels as well, not to mention engineering drawings, and professional programs which produce these drawings and charts, like [[spreadsheets]] (e.g. [[Microsoft Excel]]) or computational software programs (e.g. [[Mathematica]]). | |||
Naively placed labels overlap excessively, resulting in a map that is difficult or even impossible to read. Therefore, a GIS must allow a few possible placements of each label, and often also an option of resizing, rotating, or even removing (suppressing) the label. Then, it selects a set of placements that results in the least overlap, and has other desirable properties. For all but the most trivial setups, the problem is [[NP-hard]]. | |||
== | ==Rule-based algorithms== | ||
Rule-based algorithms try to emulate an experienced human cartographer. Over centuries, cartographers have developed the art of mapmaking and label placement. For example, an experienced cartographer repeats road names several times for long roads, instead of placing them once, or in the case of Ocean City depicted by a point very close to the shore, the cartographer would place the label "Ocean City" over the water to emphasize that it is a coastal town.<ref>{{cite book|last=Slocum|first=Terry|title=Thematic Cartography and Geovisualization|year=2010|publisher=Pearson|location=Upper Saddle River, NJ|isbn=0-13-801006-4|pages=576|url=http://www.amazon.de/dp/0138010064}}</ref> | |||
Cartographers work based on accepted conventions and rules and they place labels in order of importance. For example, New York City, Vienna, Berlin, Paris, or Tokyo must show up on country maps because they are high-priority labels. Once those are placed, the cartographer places the next most important class of labels, for example major roads, rivers, and other large cities. In every step they ensure that (1) the text is placed in a way that the reader easily associates it with the feature, and (2) the label does not overlap with those already placed on the map. | |||
== | ==Local optimization algorithms== | ||
The simplest [[greedy algorithm]] places consecutive labels on the map in positions that result in minimal overlap of labels. Its results are not satisfactory even for very simple problems, but it is extremely fast. | |||
Slightly more complex algorithms rely on local optimization to reach a local optimum of a placement evaluation function – in each iteration placement of a single label is moved to another position, and if it improves the result, the move is preserved. It performs reasonably well for maps that are not too densely labelled. Slightly more complex variations try moving 2 or more labels at the same time. The algorithm ends after reaching some local optimum. | |||
A simple algorithm – [[simulated annealing]] – yields good results with relatively good performance. It works like local optimization, but it may keep a change even if it worsens the result. The chance of keeping such a change is <math>\exp \frac{-\Delta E}{T}</math>, where <math>\Delta E</math> is the change in the evaluation function, and <math>T</math> is the ''temperature''. The temperature is gradually lowered according to the ''annealing schedule''. When the temperature is high, simulated annealing performs almost random changes to the label placement, being able to escape a [[local optimum]]. Later, when hopefully a very good local optimum has been found, it behaves in a manner similar to local optimization. The main challenges in developing a simulated annealing solution are choosing a good evaluation function and a good annealing schedule. Generally too fast cooling will degrade the solution, and too slow cooling will degrade the performance, but the schedule is usually quite a complex algorithm, with more than just one parameter. | |||
Another class of direct search algorithms are the various [[evolutionary algorithm]]s, e.g. [[genetic algorithm]]s. | |||
== | ==Divide-and-conquer algorithms== | ||
One simple optimization that is important on real maps is dividing a set of labels into smaller sets that can be solved independently. Two labels are ''rivals'' if they can overlap in one of the possible placements. [[transitive relation|Transitive]] closure of this relation divides the set of labels into possibly much smaller sets. On uniformly and densely labelled maps, usually the single set will contain the majority of labels, and on maps for which the labelling is not uniform it may bring very big performance benefits. For example when labelling a map of the world, [[United States|America]] is labelled independently from [[Eurasia]] etc. | |||
==2-satisfiability algorithms== | |||
If a map labeling problem can be reduced to a situation in which each remaining label has only two potential positions in which it can be placed, then it may be solved efficiently by using an instance of [[2-satisfiability]] to find a placement avoiding any conflicting pairs of placements; several exact and approximate label placement algorithms for more complex types of problems are based on this principle.<ref>{{citation|first1=Srinivas|last1=Doddi|first2=Madhav V.|last2=Marathe|first3=Andy|last3=Mirzaian|first4=Bernard M. E.|last4=Moret|first5=Binhai|last5=Zhu|contribution=Map labeling and its generalizations|title=Proc. 8th ACM-SIAM Symp. Discrete Algorithms (SODA)|year=1997|pages=148–157|url=http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=314250}}; {{citation|first1=M.|last1=Formann|first2=F.|last2=Wagner|contribution=A packing problem with applications to lettering of maps|title=Proc. 7th ACM Symp. Computational Geometry|year=1991|pages=281–288}}; {{citation|first1=Chung Keung|last1=Poon|first2=Binhai|last2=Zhu|first3=Francis|last3=Chin|author3-link=Y. L. Chin|title=A polynomial time solution for labeling a rectilinear map|journal=Information Processing Letters|volume=65|issue=4|year=1998|pages=201–207|doi=10.1016/S0020-0190(98)00002-7}}; {{citation|first1=Frank|last1=Wagner|first2=Alexander|last2=Wolff|title=A practical map labeling algorithm|journal=Computational Geometry: Theory and Applications|volume=7|issue=5–6|year=1997|pages=387–404|doi=10.1016/S0925-7721(96)00007-7}}.</ref> | |||
== | ==Other algorithms== | ||
Automatic label placement algorithms can use any of the algorithms forfinding the [[Maximum disjoint set]] from the set of potential labels. | |||
Other algorithms are also used, like various graph solutions, integer programming etc. | |||
==Notes== | |||
{{reflist}} | |||
==References== | |||
* Imhof, E., “Die Anordnung der Namen in der Karte,” Annuaire International de Cartographie II, Orell-Füssli Verlag, Zürich, 93–129, 1962. | |||
* Freeman, H., Map data processing and the annotation problem, Proc. 3rd Scandinavian Conf. on Image Analysis, Chartwell-Bratt Ltd. Copenhagen, 1983. | |||
* Ahn, J. and Freeman, H., “A program for automatic name placement,” Proc. AUTO-CARTO 6, Ottawa, 1983. 444–455. | |||
* Freeman, H., “Computer Name Placement,” ch. 29, in Geographical Information Systems, 1, D.J. Maguire, M.F. Goodchild, and D.W. Rhind, John Wiley, New York, 1991, 449–460. | |||
* Podolskaya N. N. Automatic Label De-Confliction Algorithms for Interactive Graphics Applications. Information technologies (ISSN 1684-6400), 9, 2007, p. 45–50. In Russian: Подольская Н.Н. Алгоритмы автоматического отброса формуляров для интерак тивных графических приложений. Информационные технологии, 9, 2007, с. 45–50. | |||
==External links== | |||
* [http://i11www.iti.uni-karlsruhe.de/~awolff/map-labeling/ Alexander Wolff's Map Labeling Site] | |||
* [http://i11www.iti.uni-karlsruhe.de/~awolff/map-labeling/bibliography/ The Map-Labeling Bibliography] | |||
* [http://www.cs.uu.nl/docs/vakken/gd/steven2.pdf Label placement] | |||
* [http://www.eecs.harvard.edu/shieber/Biblio/Papers/tog-final.pdf An Empirical Study of Algorithms for Point-Feature Label Placement] | |||
{{DEFAULTSORT:Automatic Label Placement}} | |||
[[Category:Optimization algorithms and methods]] | |||
Revision as of 07:03, 21 July 2013
Automatic label placement, sometimes called text placement or name placement, comprises the computer methods of placing labels automatically on a map or chart. This is related to the typographic design of such labels.
The typical features depicted on a geographic map are line features (e.g. roads), area features (countries, parcels, forests, lakes, etc.), and point features (villages, cities, etc.). In addition to depicting the map's features in a geographically accurate manner, it is of critical importance to place the names that identify these features, in a way that the reader knows instantly which name describes which feature.
Automatic text placement is one of the most difficult, complex, and time-consuming problems in mapmaking and GIS (Geographic Information System). Other kinds of computer-generated graphics – like charts, graphs etc. – require good placement of labels as well, not to mention engineering drawings, and professional programs which produce these drawings and charts, like spreadsheets (e.g. Microsoft Excel) or computational software programs (e.g. Mathematica).
Naively placed labels overlap excessively, resulting in a map that is difficult or even impossible to read. Therefore, a GIS must allow a few possible placements of each label, and often also an option of resizing, rotating, or even removing (suppressing) the label. Then, it selects a set of placements that results in the least overlap, and has other desirable properties. For all but the most trivial setups, the problem is NP-hard.
Rule-based algorithms
Rule-based algorithms try to emulate an experienced human cartographer. Over centuries, cartographers have developed the art of mapmaking and label placement. For example, an experienced cartographer repeats road names several times for long roads, instead of placing them once, or in the case of Ocean City depicted by a point very close to the shore, the cartographer would place the label "Ocean City" over the water to emphasize that it is a coastal town.[1]
Cartographers work based on accepted conventions and rules and they place labels in order of importance. For example, New York City, Vienna, Berlin, Paris, or Tokyo must show up on country maps because they are high-priority labels. Once those are placed, the cartographer places the next most important class of labels, for example major roads, rivers, and other large cities. In every step they ensure that (1) the text is placed in a way that the reader easily associates it with the feature, and (2) the label does not overlap with those already placed on the map.
Local optimization algorithms
The simplest greedy algorithm places consecutive labels on the map in positions that result in minimal overlap of labels. Its results are not satisfactory even for very simple problems, but it is extremely fast.
Slightly more complex algorithms rely on local optimization to reach a local optimum of a placement evaluation function – in each iteration placement of a single label is moved to another position, and if it improves the result, the move is preserved. It performs reasonably well for maps that are not too densely labelled. Slightly more complex variations try moving 2 or more labels at the same time. The algorithm ends after reaching some local optimum.
A simple algorithm – simulated annealing – yields good results with relatively good performance. It works like local optimization, but it may keep a change even if it worsens the result. The chance of keeping such a change is , where is the change in the evaluation function, and is the temperature. The temperature is gradually lowered according to the annealing schedule. When the temperature is high, simulated annealing performs almost random changes to the label placement, being able to escape a local optimum. Later, when hopefully a very good local optimum has been found, it behaves in a manner similar to local optimization. The main challenges in developing a simulated annealing solution are choosing a good evaluation function and a good annealing schedule. Generally too fast cooling will degrade the solution, and too slow cooling will degrade the performance, but the schedule is usually quite a complex algorithm, with more than just one parameter.
Another class of direct search algorithms are the various evolutionary algorithms, e.g. genetic algorithms.
Divide-and-conquer algorithms
One simple optimization that is important on real maps is dividing a set of labels into smaller sets that can be solved independently. Two labels are rivals if they can overlap in one of the possible placements. Transitive closure of this relation divides the set of labels into possibly much smaller sets. On uniformly and densely labelled maps, usually the single set will contain the majority of labels, and on maps for which the labelling is not uniform it may bring very big performance benefits. For example when labelling a map of the world, America is labelled independently from Eurasia etc.
2-satisfiability algorithms
If a map labeling problem can be reduced to a situation in which each remaining label has only two potential positions in which it can be placed, then it may be solved efficiently by using an instance of 2-satisfiability to find a placement avoiding any conflicting pairs of placements; several exact and approximate label placement algorithms for more complex types of problems are based on this principle.[2]
Other algorithms
Automatic label placement algorithms can use any of the algorithms forfinding the Maximum disjoint set from the set of potential labels.
Other algorithms are also used, like various graph solutions, integer programming etc.
Notes
43 year old Petroleum Engineer Harry from Deep River, usually spends time with hobbies and interests like renting movies, property developers in singapore new condominium and vehicle racing. Constantly enjoys going to destinations like Camino Real de Tierra Adentro.
References
- Imhof, E., “Die Anordnung der Namen in der Karte,” Annuaire International de Cartographie II, Orell-Füssli Verlag, Zürich, 93–129, 1962.
- Freeman, H., Map data processing and the annotation problem, Proc. 3rd Scandinavian Conf. on Image Analysis, Chartwell-Bratt Ltd. Copenhagen, 1983.
- Ahn, J. and Freeman, H., “A program for automatic name placement,” Proc. AUTO-CARTO 6, Ottawa, 1983. 444–455.
- Freeman, H., “Computer Name Placement,” ch. 29, in Geographical Information Systems, 1, D.J. Maguire, M.F. Goodchild, and D.W. Rhind, John Wiley, New York, 1991, 449–460.
- Podolskaya N. N. Automatic Label De-Confliction Algorithms for Interactive Graphics Applications. Information technologies (ISSN 1684-6400), 9, 2007, p. 45–50. In Russian: Подольская Н.Н. Алгоритмы автоматического отброса формуляров для интерак тивных графических приложений. Информационные технологии, 9, 2007, с. 45–50.
External links
- Alexander Wolff's Map Labeling Site
- The Map-Labeling Bibliography
- Label placement
- An Empirical Study of Algorithms for Point-Feature Label Placement
- ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
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Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.
In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.
Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region
Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.
15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.
To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010; Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.
Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.
In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.
Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region
Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.
15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.
To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010; Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.
Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.
In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.
Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region
Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.
15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.
To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010.