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The '''water-gas shift reaction''' (WGSR) describes the reaction of [[carbon monoxide]] and [[water vapor]] to form [[carbon dioxide]] and [[hydrogen]] (the mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen is known as [[water gas]]): | |||
: CO + H<sub>2</sub>O <math>\rightleftharpoons</math> CO<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub> | |||
The water gas shift reaction was discovered by Italian physicist [[Felice Fontana]] in 1780. It was not until much later that the industrial value of this reaction was realized. Before the early 20th century, hydrogen was obtained by reacting steam under high pressure with iron to produce iron, iron oxide and hydrogen. With the development of industrial processes that required hydrogen, such as the [[Haber-Bosch]] ammonia synthesis, the demand for a cheaper and more efficient method of hydrogen production was needed.<ref name="Lamm Catalysts" /> As a resolution to this problem, the WGSR was combined with the gassification of coal to produce a pure hydrogen product. As the ideal of [[Hydrogen economy]] gains popularity, the focus on hydrogen as a replacement fuel source for hydrocarbons is increasing. | |||
==Applications== | |||
The WGSR is an important industrial reaction that is used in the manufacture of [[ammonia]], [[hydrocarbon]]s, [[methanol]], and hydrogen. It is also often used in conjunction with [[steam reforming|steam reformation]] of methane and other hydrocarbons. In the [[Fischer-Tropsch process]], the WGSR is one of the most important reactions used to balance the H<sub>2</sub>/CO ratio. It provides a source of hydrogen at the expense of carbon monoxide, which is important for the production of high purity hydrogen for use in ammonia synthesis. | |||
The water-gas shift reaction may be an undesired side reaction in processes involving water and carbon monoxide, e.g. the rhodium-based [[Monsanto process]]. The iridium-based [[Cativa process]] uses less water, which suppresses this reaction. | |||
The equilibrium of this reaction shows a significant temperature dependence and the equilibrium constant decreases with an increase in temperature, that is, higher carbon monoxide conversion is observed at lower temperatures. In order to take advantage of both the [[thermodynamics]] and [[chemical kinetics|kinetics]] of the reaction, the industrial scale water gas shift reaction is conducted in multiple [[adiabatic process|adiabatic stages]] consisting of a high temperature shift (HTS) followed by a low temperature shift (LTS) with intersystem cooling.<ref name=Smith /> The initial HTS takes advantage of the high reaction rates, but is thermodynamically limited, which results in incomplete conversion of carbon monoxide and a 2-4% carbon monoxide exit composition. To shift the equilibrium toward hydrogen production, a subsequent low temperature shift reactor is employed to produce a carbon monoxide exit composition of less than 1%. The transition from the HTS to the LTS reactors necessitates intersystem colling. Due to the different reaction conditions, different catalysts must be employed at each stage to ensure optimal activity. The commercial HTS catalyst is the iron oxide–chromium oxide catalyst and the LTS catalyst is a copper-based catalyst. The order proceeds from high to low temperature due to the susceptibility of the copper catalyst to poisoning by sulfur that may remain after the steam reformation process.<ref name=Callaghan /> This necessitates the removal of the sulfur compounds prior to the LTS reactor by a guard bed in order to protect the copper catalyst. Conversely, the iron used in the HTS reaction is generally more robust and resistant toward poisoning by sulfur compounds. While both the HTS and LTS catalysts are commercially available, their specific composition varies based on vendor. An important limitation for the HTS is the H<sub>2</sub>O/CO ratio where low ratios may lead to side reactions such as the formation of metallic iron, methanation, carbon deposition, and [[Fischer-Tropsch process|Fischer-Tropsch reaction]]. | |||
===Low temperature shift (LTS) === | |||
The typical composition of commercial LTS catalyst has been reported as 32-33% CuO, 34-53% ZnO, 15-33% Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>.<ref name=Callaghan>{{cite journal|last=Callaghan|first=Caitlin|title=Kinetics and Catalysis of the Water-Gas-Shift Reaction|year=2006}}</ref> The active catalytic species is CuO. The function of ZnO is to provide structural support as well as prevent the poisoning of copper by sulfur. The Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> prevents dispersion and pellet shrinkage. The LTS shift reactor operates at a range of 200 <sup>o</sup>C to 250 <sup>o</sup>C. Low reaction temperatures must be maintained due to the susceptibility of copper to thermal sintering. These lower temperatures also reduce the occurrence of side reactions that are observed in the case of the HTS. | |||
===High Temperature Shift Catalysts=== | |||
The typical composition of commercial HTS catalyst has been reported as 74.2% Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, 10.0% Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, 0.2% MgO (remaining percentage attributed to volatile components).<ref name="Newsome 1980">{{cite journal|last=Newsome|first=David S.|title=The Water-Gas Shift Reaction|journal=Catalysis Reviews: Science and Engineering|year=1980|volume=21|issue=2|pages=275–318}}</ref> The chromium acts to stabilize the iron oxide and prevents [[sintering]]. The operation of HTS catalysts occurs within the temperature range of 310 <sup>o</sup>C to 450 <sup>o</sup>C. The temperature increases along the length of the reactor due to the exothermic nature of the reaction. As such, the inlet temperature is maintained at 350 <sup>o</sup>C to prevent the exit temperature from exceeding 550 <sup>o</sup>C. Industrial reactors operate at a range from atmospheric pressure to 8375 kPa.<ref name="Newsome 1980" /> | |||
===Fuel cells=== | |||
The WGSR can aid in the efficiency of [[fuel cell]]s by increasing hydrogen production. The WGSR is considered a critical component in the reduction of carbon monoxide concentrations in cells that are susceptible to carbon monoxide poisoning such as the [[proton exchange membrane fuel cell|proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell]].<ref name="Lamm Catalysts" /> The benefits of this application are two-fold: not only would the water gas shift reaction effectively reduce the concentration of carbon monoxide, but it would also increase the efficiency of the fuel cells by increasing hydrogen production.<ref name="Lamm Catalysts" /> Unfortunately, current commercial catalysts that are used in industrial water gas shift processes are not compatible with fuel cell applications.<ref name=Callaghan /> With the high demand for clean fuel and the critical role of the water gas shift reaction ion hydrogen fuel cells, the development of water gas shift catalysts for the application in fuel cell technology is an area of current research interest. | |||
Catalysts for fuel cell application would need to operate at low temperatures. Since the WGSR is slow at lower temperatures where equilibrium favors hydrogen production, WGS reactors require large amounts of catalysts, which increases their cost and size beyond practical application.<ref name="Lamm Catalysts">{{cite book|last=Lamm|first=editors, Wolf Vielstich, Hubert Gasteiger, Arnold|title=Handbook of fuel cells : fundamentals, technology, applications|year=2003|publisher=Wiley|location=New York|isbn=0-471-49926-9|edition=Reprinted}}</ref> The commercial LTS catalyst used in large scale industrial plants is also pyrophoric in its inactive state and therefore presents safety concerns for consumer applications.<ref name=Callaghan /> Developing a catalyst that can overcome these limitations is relevant to implementation of a hydrogen economy. | |||
==Reaction Conditions== | |||
While the WGSR has been extensively studied for over a hundred years, the mechanism remains under debate. A universal rate expression and mechanistic understanding have proven elusive, reflecting the many reaction variables, vagarities of the catalyst, and the proprietary nature of commercial processes.<ref name=Smith>{{cite journal|last=Smith R J|first=Byron|coauthors=Muruganandam Loganthan, Murthy Shekhar Shantha|title=A Review of the Water Gas Shift Reaction|journal=International Journal of Chemical Reactor Engineering|year=2010|volume=8|pages=1–32}}</ref> | |||
===Temperature Dependence=== | |||
The water gas shift reaction is a moderately [[Exothermic reaction|exothermic]] reversible reaction. Therefore with increasing temperature the reaction rate increases but the conversion of reactants to products becomes less favorable.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ratnasamy|first=Chandra|coauthors=Wagner, Jon P.|title=Water Gas Shift Catalysis|journal=Catalysis Reviews|date=September 2009|volume=51|issue=3|pages=325–440|doi=10.1080/01614940903048661}}</ref> Due to its exothermic nature, high carbon monoxide conversion is [[Thermodynamic versus kinetic reaction control|thermodynamically]] favored at low temperatures. Despite the thermodynamic favorability at low temperatures, the reaction is [[Thermodynamic versus kinetic reaction control|kinetically]] favored at high temperatures. | |||
The water-gas shift reaction is [[Chemical equilibrium#Effect of temperature|sensitive to temperature]], with the tendency to shift towards reactants as temperature increases due to [[Le Chatelier's principle]]. Over the temperature range 600 – 2000 K, the logarithm of the equilibrium constant for the WGSR is given by the following equation:<ref name=Callaghan /> | |||
<div align="center"><math>\log K_\mathrm{eq} = -2.4198 + 0.0003855T + \frac{2180.6}{T}</math></div> | |||
The value of ''K''<sub>eq</sub> approaches 1 at {{val|1100|ul=K}}. The following plot depicts the temperature dependence of ''K''<sub>eq</sub> as shown by this equation.<ref name=Callaghan /> | |||
[[File:WGS Keq.fw.png|400px|thumbnail|center]] | |||
==Mechanism== | |||
Two main mechanisms have been proposed: an associative ‘Langmuir–Hinshelwood’ mechanism, and a regenerative ‘redox’ mechanism. While the regenerative mechanism is generally implemented to describe the WGS at higher temperatures, at low temperature both the redox and associative mechanisms are suitable explanations.<ref name="Guiseppe dissertation">{{cite journal|last=Guiseppe|first=Brenna|title=NEW CATALYST FOR THE H2 PRODUCTION BY WATER-GAS SHIFT REACTION PROCESSES|journal=Dissertation|year=2010}}</ref> | |||
[[File:WGS mechanism.png|550px|thumb|right|Associative and Redox Mechanism of the Water Gas Shift]] | |||
===Associative Mechanism=== | |||
In 1920 Armstrong and Hilditch first proposed the associative mechanism. In this mechanism CO and H<sub>2</sub>O are adsorbed onto the surface of the metal catalyst followed by the formation of an intermediate and the desorption of H<sub>2</sub> and CO<sub>2</sub>. In the initial step, H<sub>2</sub>O dissociates into a metal adsorbed OH and H. The hydroxide then reacts with CO to form a carboxyl or formate intermediate which subsequently decomposes into CO<sub>2</sub> and the metal adsorbed H, which ultimately yields H<sub>2</sub>. While this mechanism may be valid under LTS conditions, the redox mechanism which does not involve any long lived surface intermediates is a more suitable explanation of the WGS mechanism at higher temperatures. | |||
===Redox Mechanism=== | |||
The regenerative ‘redox’ mechanism is the most commonly accepted mechanism for the WGSR. It involves a regenerative change in the oxidation state of the catalytic metal. In this mechanism, H<sub>2</sub>O is activated first by the abstraction of H from water followed by dissociation or disproportionation of the resulting OH to afford atomic O. The CO is then oxidized by the atomic O forming CO<sub>2</sub> which returns the catalytic surface back to its pre-reaction state. Alternatively, CO may be directly oxidized by the OH to form a carboxyl intermediate, followed by the dissociation or disproportionation of the carboxyl. Finally H is recombined to H<sub>2</sub> and CO<sub>2</sub> and H<sub>2</sub> are desorbed from the metal. The principal difference in these mechanisms is the formation of CO<sub>2</sub>. The redox mechanism generates CO<sub>2</sub> by reaction with adsorbed oxygen, while the associative mechanism forms CO<sub>2</sub> via the dissociation of an intermediate. The mechanism of [[decarboxylation]] is debated; it may involve [[β-hydride elimination]], or it may require the action of an external base. | |||
===Homogeneous models=== | |||
Useful mechanistic insights resulted from the discovery that metal carbonyls catalyze the WGSR.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jacobs|first=G.|coauthors=B. H. Davis|title=Low temperature water-gas shift catalysts|journal=Catalysis|year=2007|volume=20|pages=122–285|doi=10.1039/B601305H}}</ref> The basic reaction entails nucleophilic attack of water or hydroxide on a M-CO center, generating a [[metallacarboxylic acid]].<ref name="Lamm Catalysts" /><ref>{{cite journal|last=Barakat|first=Tarek|coauthors=Rooke, Joanna C.; Genty, Eric; Cousin, Renaud; Siffert, Stéphane; Su, Bao-Lian|title=Gold catalysts in environmental remediation and water-gas shift technologies|journal=Energy & Environmental Science|date=1 January 2013|volume=6|issue=2|pages=371|doi=10.1039/c2ee22859a}}</ref> | |||
==Reverse Water Gas Shift== | |||
[[File:RWGS reactor flowchart.png|420px|thumbnail|right|Reverse Water Gas Shift Flow Cylcle]] | |||
Depending on the reaction conditions, the equilibrium for the water gas shift can be pushed in either the forward or reverse direction. The reversibility of the WGSR is important in the production of ammonium, methanol, and Fischer-Tropsch synthesis where the ratio of H<sub>2</sub>/CO is critical. Many other industrial companies exploit the reverse water gas shift reaction (RWGS) reaction as a source of the synthetically valuable CO from cheap CO<sub>2</sub>. Typically, It is done using a copper on aluminium catalyst. The RWGS reaction is also gaining interest in the context of the human missions to Mars primarily for its potential to produce water and oxygen.<ref name="RWGS process">{{cite journal|last=Whitlow|first=Jonathan E.|coauthors=Parish|title=Operation, Modeling and Analysis of the Reverse Water Gas Shift Process|year=2003|doi=10.1063/1.1541409}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Zubrin|first=R.|title=[[The Case for Mars]]|page=153 | isbn = 0-684-83550-9}}</ref> The Mars atmosphere is about 95% CO<sub>2</sub> which can be utilized by the RWGS reaction given a source of hydrogen. Coupling the RWGS with the [[water electrolysis]] process will yield methane and oxygen. Post electrolysis, the hydrogen produced can be recycled back into the RWGS reactor for the continued conversion of CO<sub>2</sub>. Because this reaction is only mildly [[endothermic]], the thermal power needed to drive this reaction can potentially be produced by a [[Sabatier reaction|Sabatier reactor]]. | |||
==See also== | |||
*[[In-situ resource utilization]] | |||
*[[Lane hydrogen producer]] | |||
*[[PROX]] | |||
*[[Industrial catalysts]] | |||
==References== | |||
{{Reflist}} | |||
{{DEFAULTSORT:Water Gas Shift Reaction}} | |||
[[Category:Inorganic reactions]] | |||
[[Category:Chemical engineering]] | |||
[[Category:Hydrogen production]] | |||
Revision as of 05:22, 7 November 2013
The water-gas shift reaction (WGSR) describes the reaction of carbon monoxide and water vapor to form carbon dioxide and hydrogen (the mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen is known as water gas):
- CO + H2O CO2 + H2
The water gas shift reaction was discovered by Italian physicist Felice Fontana in 1780. It was not until much later that the industrial value of this reaction was realized. Before the early 20th century, hydrogen was obtained by reacting steam under high pressure with iron to produce iron, iron oxide and hydrogen. With the development of industrial processes that required hydrogen, such as the Haber-Bosch ammonia synthesis, the demand for a cheaper and more efficient method of hydrogen production was needed.[1] As a resolution to this problem, the WGSR was combined with the gassification of coal to produce a pure hydrogen product. As the ideal of Hydrogen economy gains popularity, the focus on hydrogen as a replacement fuel source for hydrocarbons is increasing.
Applications
The WGSR is an important industrial reaction that is used in the manufacture of ammonia, hydrocarbons, methanol, and hydrogen. It is also often used in conjunction with steam reformation of methane and other hydrocarbons. In the Fischer-Tropsch process, the WGSR is one of the most important reactions used to balance the H2/CO ratio. It provides a source of hydrogen at the expense of carbon monoxide, which is important for the production of high purity hydrogen for use in ammonia synthesis.
The water-gas shift reaction may be an undesired side reaction in processes involving water and carbon monoxide, e.g. the rhodium-based Monsanto process. The iridium-based Cativa process uses less water, which suppresses this reaction.
The equilibrium of this reaction shows a significant temperature dependence and the equilibrium constant decreases with an increase in temperature, that is, higher carbon monoxide conversion is observed at lower temperatures. In order to take advantage of both the thermodynamics and kinetics of the reaction, the industrial scale water gas shift reaction is conducted in multiple adiabatic stages consisting of a high temperature shift (HTS) followed by a low temperature shift (LTS) with intersystem cooling.[2] The initial HTS takes advantage of the high reaction rates, but is thermodynamically limited, which results in incomplete conversion of carbon monoxide and a 2-4% carbon monoxide exit composition. To shift the equilibrium toward hydrogen production, a subsequent low temperature shift reactor is employed to produce a carbon monoxide exit composition of less than 1%. The transition from the HTS to the LTS reactors necessitates intersystem colling. Due to the different reaction conditions, different catalysts must be employed at each stage to ensure optimal activity. The commercial HTS catalyst is the iron oxide–chromium oxide catalyst and the LTS catalyst is a copper-based catalyst. The order proceeds from high to low temperature due to the susceptibility of the copper catalyst to poisoning by sulfur that may remain after the steam reformation process.[3] This necessitates the removal of the sulfur compounds prior to the LTS reactor by a guard bed in order to protect the copper catalyst. Conversely, the iron used in the HTS reaction is generally more robust and resistant toward poisoning by sulfur compounds. While both the HTS and LTS catalysts are commercially available, their specific composition varies based on vendor. An important limitation for the HTS is the H2O/CO ratio where low ratios may lead to side reactions such as the formation of metallic iron, methanation, carbon deposition, and Fischer-Tropsch reaction.
Low temperature shift (LTS)
The typical composition of commercial LTS catalyst has been reported as 32-33% CuO, 34-53% ZnO, 15-33% Al2O3.[3] The active catalytic species is CuO. The function of ZnO is to provide structural support as well as prevent the poisoning of copper by sulfur. The Al2O3 prevents dispersion and pellet shrinkage. The LTS shift reactor operates at a range of 200 oC to 250 oC. Low reaction temperatures must be maintained due to the susceptibility of copper to thermal sintering. These lower temperatures also reduce the occurrence of side reactions that are observed in the case of the HTS.
High Temperature Shift Catalysts
The typical composition of commercial HTS catalyst has been reported as 74.2% Fe2O3, 10.0% Cr2O3, 0.2% MgO (remaining percentage attributed to volatile components).[4] The chromium acts to stabilize the iron oxide and prevents sintering. The operation of HTS catalysts occurs within the temperature range of 310 oC to 450 oC. The temperature increases along the length of the reactor due to the exothermic nature of the reaction. As such, the inlet temperature is maintained at 350 oC to prevent the exit temperature from exceeding 550 oC. Industrial reactors operate at a range from atmospheric pressure to 8375 kPa.[4]
Fuel cells
The WGSR can aid in the efficiency of fuel cells by increasing hydrogen production. The WGSR is considered a critical component in the reduction of carbon monoxide concentrations in cells that are susceptible to carbon monoxide poisoning such as the proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell.[1] The benefits of this application are two-fold: not only would the water gas shift reaction effectively reduce the concentration of carbon monoxide, but it would also increase the efficiency of the fuel cells by increasing hydrogen production.[1] Unfortunately, current commercial catalysts that are used in industrial water gas shift processes are not compatible with fuel cell applications.[3] With the high demand for clean fuel and the critical role of the water gas shift reaction ion hydrogen fuel cells, the development of water gas shift catalysts for the application in fuel cell technology is an area of current research interest.
Catalysts for fuel cell application would need to operate at low temperatures. Since the WGSR is slow at lower temperatures where equilibrium favors hydrogen production, WGS reactors require large amounts of catalysts, which increases their cost and size beyond practical application.[1] The commercial LTS catalyst used in large scale industrial plants is also pyrophoric in its inactive state and therefore presents safety concerns for consumer applications.[3] Developing a catalyst that can overcome these limitations is relevant to implementation of a hydrogen economy.
Reaction Conditions
While the WGSR has been extensively studied for over a hundred years, the mechanism remains under debate. A universal rate expression and mechanistic understanding have proven elusive, reflecting the many reaction variables, vagarities of the catalyst, and the proprietary nature of commercial processes.[2]
Temperature Dependence
The water gas shift reaction is a moderately exothermic reversible reaction. Therefore with increasing temperature the reaction rate increases but the conversion of reactants to products becomes less favorable.[5] Due to its exothermic nature, high carbon monoxide conversion is thermodynamically favored at low temperatures. Despite the thermodynamic favorability at low temperatures, the reaction is kinetically favored at high temperatures. The water-gas shift reaction is sensitive to temperature, with the tendency to shift towards reactants as temperature increases due to Le Chatelier's principle. Over the temperature range 600 – 2000 K, the logarithm of the equilibrium constant for the WGSR is given by the following equation:[3]
The value of Keq approaches 1 at Template:Val. The following plot depicts the temperature dependence of Keq as shown by this equation.[3]
Mechanism
Two main mechanisms have been proposed: an associative ‘Langmuir–Hinshelwood’ mechanism, and a regenerative ‘redox’ mechanism. While the regenerative mechanism is generally implemented to describe the WGS at higher temperatures, at low temperature both the redox and associative mechanisms are suitable explanations.[6]
Associative Mechanism
In 1920 Armstrong and Hilditch first proposed the associative mechanism. In this mechanism CO and H2O are adsorbed onto the surface of the metal catalyst followed by the formation of an intermediate and the desorption of H2 and CO2. In the initial step, H2O dissociates into a metal adsorbed OH and H. The hydroxide then reacts with CO to form a carboxyl or formate intermediate which subsequently decomposes into CO2 and the metal adsorbed H, which ultimately yields H2. While this mechanism may be valid under LTS conditions, the redox mechanism which does not involve any long lived surface intermediates is a more suitable explanation of the WGS mechanism at higher temperatures.
Redox Mechanism
The regenerative ‘redox’ mechanism is the most commonly accepted mechanism for the WGSR. It involves a regenerative change in the oxidation state of the catalytic metal. In this mechanism, H2O is activated first by the abstraction of H from water followed by dissociation or disproportionation of the resulting OH to afford atomic O. The CO is then oxidized by the atomic O forming CO2 which returns the catalytic surface back to its pre-reaction state. Alternatively, CO may be directly oxidized by the OH to form a carboxyl intermediate, followed by the dissociation or disproportionation of the carboxyl. Finally H is recombined to H2 and CO2 and H2 are desorbed from the metal. The principal difference in these mechanisms is the formation of CO2. The redox mechanism generates CO2 by reaction with adsorbed oxygen, while the associative mechanism forms CO2 via the dissociation of an intermediate. The mechanism of decarboxylation is debated; it may involve β-hydride elimination, or it may require the action of an external base.
Homogeneous models
Useful mechanistic insights resulted from the discovery that metal carbonyls catalyze the WGSR.[7] The basic reaction entails nucleophilic attack of water or hydroxide on a M-CO center, generating a metallacarboxylic acid.[1][8]
Reverse Water Gas Shift
Depending on the reaction conditions, the equilibrium for the water gas shift can be pushed in either the forward or reverse direction. The reversibility of the WGSR is important in the production of ammonium, methanol, and Fischer-Tropsch synthesis where the ratio of H2/CO is critical. Many other industrial companies exploit the reverse water gas shift reaction (RWGS) reaction as a source of the synthetically valuable CO from cheap CO2. Typically, It is done using a copper on aluminium catalyst. The RWGS reaction is also gaining interest in the context of the human missions to Mars primarily for its potential to produce water and oxygen.[9][10] The Mars atmosphere is about 95% CO2 which can be utilized by the RWGS reaction given a source of hydrogen. Coupling the RWGS with the water electrolysis process will yield methane and oxygen. Post electrolysis, the hydrogen produced can be recycled back into the RWGS reactor for the continued conversion of CO2. Because this reaction is only mildly endothermic, the thermal power needed to drive this reaction can potentially be produced by a Sabatier reactor.
See also
References
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Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.
A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running
The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more
There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang - ↑ 4.0 4.1 One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting
In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang
Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules
Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.
A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running
The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more
There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang - ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting
In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang
Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules
Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.
A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running
The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more
There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang - ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting
In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang
Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules
Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.
A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running
The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more
There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang - ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting
In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang
Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules
Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.
A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running
The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more
There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang - ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting
In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang
Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules
Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.
A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running
The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more
There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang - ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting
In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang
Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules
Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.
A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running
The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more
There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang - ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
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