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{{Distinguish|George Boolos}}
{{redirect|Boole}}
{{EngvarB|date=May 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2013}}
{{Infobox philosopher
|region          = Western Philosophy
|era              = [[19th-century philosophy]]
|color            = #B0C4DE
|image            = George Boole color.jpg
|caption          = George Boole
|name            = George Boole
|birth_date      = 2 November 1815
|birth_place      = [[Lincoln, Lincolnshire]], England
|death_date      = {{death date and age|1864|12|08|1815|11|02|df=y}}
|death_place      = [[Ballintemple]], [[County Cork]], Ireland
|nationality      = English
|school_tradition = Mathematical foundations of [[computer science]]
|main_interests  = Mathematics, [[Logic]], [[Philosophy of mathematics]]
|religion        = [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]]
|influences      = [[Aristotle]], [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]], [[Isaac Newton|Newton]]
|influenced      = Modern computer scientists, [[William Stanley Jevons|Jevons]], [[Augustus De Morgan|De Morgan]], [[John Maynard Keynes|Keynes]], [[Bertrand Russell|Russell]], [[Charles Sanders Peirce|Peirce]], [[William Ernest Johnson|Johnson]], [[Claude Shannon|Shannon]], [[Victor Shestakov|Shestakov]]
|notable_ideas    = [[Boolean algebra]]
}}
 
'''George Boole''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|uː|l}}; 2 November 1815&nbsp;– 8 December 1864) was an English mathematician, philosopher and [[logician]]. He worked in the fields of [[differential equation]]s and [[algebraic logic]], and is now best known as the author of ''[[The Laws of Thought]]''. As the inventor of the prototype of what is now called [[Boolean logic]], which became the basis of the modern [[digital computer]], Boole is regarded in hindsight as a founder of the field of [[computer science]]. Boole said,
<blockquote>... no general method for the solution of questions in the theory of probabilities can be established which does not explicitly recognise ... those universal laws of thought which are the basis of all reasoning ...<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kerryr.net/pioneers/boole.htm |title=George Boole (1815–1864) |publisher=Kerryr.net |date= |accessdate=2013-04-22}}</ref></blockquote>
 
==Early life==
Boole was born in [[Lincoln, Lincolnshire]]. His father, John Boole (1779–1848), was a tradesman in Lincoln,<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Boole, George}}</ref> and gave him lessons. He had an elementary school education, but little further formal and academic teaching. William Brooke, a bookseller in Lincoln, may have helped him with Latin; which he may also have learned at the school of Thomas Bainbridge. He was self-taught in modern languages.<ref name=Hill149>Hill, p. 149; [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-A89AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA149 Google Books].</ref> At age 16 Boole became the breadwinner for his parents and three younger siblings, taking up a junior teaching position in [[Doncaster]], at Heigham's School.<ref name=Rhees1954>[[Rush Rhees|Rhees, Rush]]. (1954) "George Boole as Student and Teacher. By Some of His Friends and Pupils." ''Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Section A: Mathematical and Physical Sciences''. Vol. 57. Royal Irish Academy</ref> He taught briefly in [[Liverpool]].<ref name=MacTutor>{{MacTutor Biography|id=Boole}}</ref>
 
Boole participated in the local [[Mechanics Institute]], the Lincoln Mechanics' Institution, which was founded in 1833.<ref name=Hill149/><ref>[http://www.freewebs.com/sochistastro/lincolnshire.htm Society for the History of Astronomy, ''Lincolnshire''.]</ref> [[Edward Bromhead]], who knew John Boole through the Institution, helped George Boole with mathematics books;<ref>{{ODNBweb|id=37224|title=Bromhead, Sir Edward Thomas French|first=A. W. F.|last=Edwards}}</ref> and he was given the calculus text of [[Sylvestre François Lacroix]] by Rev. George Stevens Dickson, of St Swithin Lincoln.<ref name=SED>{{Sep entry|boole|George Boole|Stanley Burris}}</ref> Without a teacher, it took him many years to master calculus.<ref name=MacTutor/>
 
{|align=right
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#dddddd; font-size:100%; text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Boole's Lincoln House
|-
|<gallery>
File:3 Pottergate - geograph.org.uk - 657140.jpg|Boole's House and School at 3 Pottergate in Lincoln.
File:BoolePlacque.jpg|Plaque from the house in Lincoln.
</gallery>
|}
 
At age 19 Boole successfully established his own school at Lincoln. Four years later he took over Hall's Academy, at [[Waddington, Lincolnshire|Waddington]], outside Lincoln, following the death of Robert Hall. In 1840 he moved back to Lincoln, where he ran a boarding school.<ref name=MacTutor/>
 
Boole became a prominent local figure, an admirer of [[John Kaye (bishop)|John Kaye]], the bishop.<ref>Hill, p. 172 note 2; [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-A89AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA172 Google Books].</ref> He took part in the local campaign for [[early closing]].<ref name=Hill149/> With [[E. R. Larken]] and others he set up a [[building society]] in 1847.<ref>Hill, p. 130 note 1; [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-A89AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA130 Google Books].</ref> He associated also with the [[Chartism|Chartist]] [[Thomas Cooper (poet)|Thomas Cooper]], whose wife was a relation.<ref>Hill, p. 148; [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-A89AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA148 Google Books].</ref>
 
From 1838 onwards Boole was making contacts with sympathetic British academic mathematicians, and reading more widely. He studied algebra in the form of symbolic methods, as these were understood at the time, and began to publish research papers.<ref name=MacTutor/>
 
==Professor at Cork==
[[File:Boole House Cork.jpg|thumb|The house in Cork in which Boole lived between 1849 and 1855.]]
Boole's status as mathematician was recognised by his appointment in 1849 as the first professor of mathematics at [[Queen's College, Cork]] in Ireland. He met his future wife, Mary Everest, there in 1850 while she was visiting her uncle John Ryall who was Professor of Greek. They married some years later.<ref>Ronald Calinger, ''Vita mathematica: historical research and integration with teaching'' (1996), p. 292; [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=D21wKHoYGg0C&pg=PA292 Google Books].</ref> He maintained his ties with Lincoln, working there with E. R. Larken in a campaign to reduce prostitution.<ref>Hill, p. 138 note 4; [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-A89AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA138 Google Books].</ref>
 
Boole was elected [[Fellow of the Royal Society]] in 1857;<ref name=SED/> and received [[honorary degrees]] of [[LL.D.]] from the [[University of Dublin]] and [[Oxford University]].<ref>[[Ivor Grattan-Guinness]], [[Gérard Bornet]], ''George Boole: Selected manuscripts on logic and its philosophy'' (1997), p. xiv; [http://books.google.com/books?id=pzg7UFsIVJIC&pg=PR14 Google Books].</ref>
 
==Death==
On 8 December 1864, Boole died of an attack of fever, ending in [[pleural effusion]]. He was buried in the Church of Ireland cemetery of St Michael's, Church Road, [[Blackrock, Cork|Blackrock]] (a suburb of [[Cork City]]). There is a commemorative plaque inside the adjoining church.{{citation needed|date=June 2013}}
[[File:2010-05-26 at 18-05-02.jpg|thumb|Boole's gravestone, Cork, Ireland.]]
[[File:BooleWindow(bottom third).jpg|thumb|Detail of stained glass window in [[Lincoln Cathedral]] dedicated to George Boole.]]
[[File:BoolePlaque2.jpg|thumb|Plaque beneath Boole's window in Lincoln Cathedral.]]
 
==Works==
Boole's first published paper was ''Researches in the theory of analytical transformations, with a special application to the reduction of the general equation of the second order'', printed in the ''[[Cambridge Mathematical Journal]]'' in February 1840 (Volume 2, no. 8, pp.&nbsp;64–73), and it led to a friendship between Boole and [[Duncan Farquharson Gregory]], the editor of the journal. His works are in about 50 articles and a few separate publications.<ref>A list of Boole's memoirs and papers is in the ''Catalogue of Scientific Memoirs'' published by the [[Royal Society]], and in the supplementary volume on differential equations, edited by [[Isaac Todhunter]]. To the ''Cambridge Mathematical Journal'' and its successor, the ''[[Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical Journal]]'', Boole contributed 22 articles in all. In the third and fourth series of the ''[[Philosophical Magazine]]'' are found 16 papers. The Royal Society printed six memoirs in the ''[[Philosophical Transactions]]'', and a few other memoirs are to be found in the ''Transactions'' of the [[Royal Society of Edinburgh]] and of the [[Royal Irish Academy]], in the ''Bulletin de l'Académie de St-Pétersbourg'' for 1862 (under the name G. Boldt, vol. iv. pp.&nbsp;198–215), and in ''[[Crelle's Journal]]''. Also included is a paper on the mathematical basis of logic, published in the ''[[Mechanic's Magazine]]'' in 1848.</ref>
 
In 1841 Boole published an influential paper in early [[invariant theory]].<ref name=SED/> He received a medal from the [[Royal Society]] for his memoir of 1844, ''On A General Method of Analysis''. It was a contribution to the theory of [[linear differential equation]]s, moving from the case of constant coefficients on which he had already published, to variable coefficients.<ref>[[Andrei Nikolaevich Kolmogorov]], [[Adolf Pavlovich Yushkevich]] (editors), ''Mathematics of the 19th Century: function theory according to Chebyshev, ordinary differential equations, calculus of variations, theory of finite differences'' (1998), pp. 130–2; [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mw6JMdZQO-wC&pg=PA130 Google Books].</ref> The innovation in operational methods is to admit that operations may not [[commutative law|commute]].<ref>[[Jeremy Gray]], [[Karen Hunger Parshall]], ''Episodes in the History of Modern Algebra (1800–1950)'' (2007), p. 66; [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zMSl6QLlJZsC&pg=PA66 Google Books].</ref> In 1847 Boole published ''The Mathematical Analysis of Logic '', the first of his works on symbolic logic.<ref>George Boole, [http://books.google.com/books?id=zv4YAQAAIAAJ&pg=PP9#v=onepage&q&f=false ''The Mathematical Analysis of Logic, Being an Essay towards a Calculus of Deductive Reasoning''] (London, England: Macmillan, Barclay, & Macmillan, 1847).</ref>
 
===Differential equations===
Two systematic treatises on mathematical subjects were completed by Boole during his lifetime. The ''Treatise on Differential Equations'' appeared in 1859, and was followed, the next year, by a ''Treatise on the [[Calculus]] of Finite Differences'', a sequel to the former work. In the sixteenth and seventeenth chapters of the ''Differential Equations'' is an account of the general symbolic method, and of a general method in analysis, originally described in his memoir printed in the ''Philosophical Transactions'' for 1844.{{citation needed|date=June 2013}}
 
During the last few years of his life Boole worked on a second edition of his ''Differential Equations'', and part of his last vacation was spent in the libraries of the Royal Society and the [[British Museum]]; but it was left incomplete. [[Isaac Todhunter]] printed the manuscripts in 1865, in a supplementary volume.{{citation needed|date=June 2013}}
 
===Analysis===
In 1857, Boole published the treatise ''On the Comparison of Transcendents, with Certain Applications to the Theory of Definite Integrals'',<ref>{{cite journal |title=On the Comparison of Transcendents, with Certain Applications to the Theory of Definite Integrals |first=George |last=Boole |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |volume=147 |year=1857 |pages=745–803 |jstor=108643}}</ref> in which he studied the sum of [[residue (complex analysis)|residues]] of a [[rational function]]. Among other results, he proved what is now called Boole's identity:
 
:<math>\mathrm{mes} \left\{ x \in \mathbb{R} \, \mid \, \Re \frac{1}{\pi} \sum \frac{a_k}{x - b_k} \geq t \right\} = \frac{\sum a_k}{\pi t} </math>
 
for any real numbers ''a''<sub>''k''</sub>&nbsp;>&nbsp;0, ''b''<sub>''k''</sub>, and ''t''&nbsp;>&nbsp;0.<ref name=cmr>{{cite book|mr=2129737|last1=Cima|first1=Joseph A.|last2=Matheson|first2=Alec|last3=Ross|first3=William T.|chapter=The Cauchy transform|title=Quadrature domains and their applications|pages=79–111|series=Oper. Theory Adv. Appl.|volume=156|publisher=Birkhäuser|location=Basel|year=2005}}</ref> Generalisations of this identity play an important role in the theory of the [[Hilbert transform]].<ref name=cmr/>
 
===Symbolic logic===
{{main|Boolean algebra}}
In 1847 Boole published the pamphlet ''Mathematical Analysis of Logic''. He later regarded it as a flawed exposition of his logical system, and wanted ''[[The Laws of Thought|An Investigation of the Laws of Thought (1854), on Which are Founded the Mathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities]]'' to be seen as the mature statement of his views. Contrary to widespread belief, Boole never intended to criticize or disagree with the main principles of Aristotle’s logic. Rather he intended to systematize it, to provide it with a foundation, and to extend its range of applicability.<ref>[[John Corcoran (logician)|JOHN CORCORAN]], Aristotle's Prior Analytics and Boole's Laws of Thought, History and Philosophy of Logic, vol.  24 (2003), pp. 261–288.</ref> Boole's initial involvement in logic was prompted by a current debate on [[quantification#Logic|quantification]], between [[Sir William Hamilton, 9th Baronet|Sir William Hamilton]] who supported the theory of "quantification of the predicate", and Boole's supporter [[Augustus De Morgan]] who advanced a version of [[De Morgan duality]], as it is now called. Boole's approach was ultimately much further reaching than either sides' in the controversy.<ref name=ODNB>{{ODNBweb|id=2868|title=Boole, George|first=I.|last=Grattan-Guinness}}</ref> It founded what was first known as the "algebra of logic" tradition.<ref name=Marc>Witold Marciszewski (editor), ''Dictionary of Logic as Applied in the Study of Language'' (1981), pp. 194–5.</ref>
 
Boole did not regard logic as a branch of mathematics, but he provided a general symbolic method of [[logical inference]]. Boole proposed that logical propositions should be expressed by means of algebraic equations. Algebraic manipulation of the symbols in the equations would provide a fail-safe method of logical deduction: i.e. logic is reduced to a type of algebra.{{citation needed|date=June 2013}}
 
By 1 (unity) Boole denoted the "universe of thinkable objects"; [[literal (computer programming)|literal]] symbols, such as ''x'', ''y'', ''z'', ''v'', ''u'', etc., were used with the "elective" meaning attaching to adjectives and nouns of [[natural language]]. Thus, if ''x'' = horned and ''y'' = sheep, then the successive acts of election (i.e. choice) represented by ''x'' and ''y'', if performed on unity, give the class "horned sheep". Thus, (1&nbsp;– ''x'') would represent the operation of selecting all things in the world except horned things, that is, all not horned things, and (1&nbsp;– ''x'') (1&nbsp;– ''y'') would give all things neither horned nor sheep.{{citation needed|date=June 2013}}Among his many innovations is his principle of [[wholistic reference]], which was later, and probably independently, adopted by [[Gottlob Frege]] and by logicians who subscribe to standard first-order logic. A 2003 article<ref>Corcoran, John (2003). “Aristotle's Prior Analytics and Boole's Laws of Thought”. ''History and Philosophy of Logic'', '''24''': 261–288. Reviewed by Risto Vilkko. ''Bulletin of Symbolic Logic'', '''11'''(2005) 89–91. Also by Marcel Guillaume, ''Mathematical Reviews'' 2033867 (2004m:03006).</ref> provides a systematic comparison and critical evaluation of [[Aristotelian logic]] and [[Boolean logic]]; it also reveals the centrality of [[wholistic reference]] in Boole's [[philosophy of logic]].
 
====Boole’s 1854 Definition of [[Universe of Discourse]]====
 
In every discourse, whether of the mind conversing with its own thoughts, or of the individual in his intercourse with others, there is an assumed or expressed limit within which the subjects of its operation are confined. The most unfettered discourse is that in which the words we use are understood in the widest possible application, and for them the limits of discourse are co-extensive with those of the universe itself. But more usually we confine ourselves to a less spacious field. Sometimes, in discoursing of men we imply (without expressing the limitation) that it is of men only under certain circumstances and conditions that we speak, as of civilized men, or of men in the vigour of life, or of men under some other condition or relation. Now, whatever may be the extent of the field within which all the objects of our discourse are found, that field may
properly be termed the universe of discourse.
Furthermore, this universe of discourse is in the strictest sense the ultimate subject of the discourse.<ref>George Boole. 1854/2003. The Laws of Thought, facsimile of 1854 edition, with an introduction by J. Corcoran. Buffalo: Prometheus Books (2003). Reviewed by James van Evra in Philosophy in Review.24 (2004) 167–169.</ref>
 
====Treatment of addition in logic====
Boole conceived of "elective symbols" of his kind as an [[algebraic structure]]. But this general concept was not available to him: he did not have the segregation standard in [[abstract algebra]] of postulated (axiomatic) properties of operations, and deduced properties.<ref name=KY>[[Andrei Nikolaevich Kolmogorov]], [[Adolf Pavlovich Yushkevich]], ''Mathematics of the 19th Century: mathematical logic, algebra, number theory, probability theory'' (2001), pp. 15 (note 15)–16; [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X3u5hJCkobYC&pg=PA15 Google Books].</ref> His work was a beginning to the [[algebra of sets]], again not a concept available to Boole as a familiar model. His pioneering efforts encountered specific difficulties, and the treatment of addition was an obvious difficulty in the early days.
 
Boole replaced the operation of multiplication by the word 'and' and addition by the word 'or'. But in Boole's original system, + was a [[partial operation]]: in the language of [[set theory]] it would correspond only to [[disjoint union]] of subsets. Later authors changed the interpretation, commonly reading it as [[exclusive or]], or in set theory terms [[symmetric difference]]; this step means that addition is always defined.<ref name=Marc/><ref>{{sep entry|algebra-logic-tradition|The Algebra of Logic Tradition|Stanley Burris}}</ref>
 
In fact there is the other possibility, that + should be read as [[disjunction]],<ref name=KY/> This other possibility extends from the disjoint union case, where exclusive or and non-exclusive or both give the same answer. Handling this ambiguity was an early problem of the theory, reflecting the modern use of both [[Boolean ring]]s and Boolean algebras (which are simply different aspects of one type of structure). Boole and Jevons struggled over just this issue in 1863, in the form of the correct evaluation of ''x'' + ''x''. Jevons argued for the result ''x'', which is correct for + as disjunction. Boole kept the result as something undefined. He argued against the result 0, which is correct for exclusive or, because he saw the equation ''x'' + ''x'' = 0 as implying ''x'' = 0, a false analogy with ordinary algebra.<ref name=SED/>
 
===Probability theory===
The second part of the ''Laws of Thought'' contained a corresponding attempt to discover a general method in probabilities. Here the goal was algorithmic: from the given probabilities of any system of events, to determine the consequent probability of any other event logically connected with the those events.<ref>{{cite book |last=Boole |first=George |title=An Investigation of the Laws of Thought |publisher=Walton & Maberly |year=1854 |location=London |pages=265–275 |url=http://archive.org/stream/investigationofl00boolrich#page/264/mode/2up}}</ref>
 
==Legacy==
[[Boolean algebra]] is named after him, as is the crater [[Boole (crater)|Boole]] on the Moon. The keyword ''Bool'' represents a [[Boolean datatype]] in many programming languages, though [[Pascal (programming language)|Pascal]] and [[Java (programming language)|Java]], among others, both use the full name ''Boolean''.<ref>P. J. Brown, ''Pascal from Basic'', Addison-Wesley, 1982. ISBN 0-201-13789-5, page 72</ref> The library, underground lecture theatre complex and the Boole Centre for Research in Informatics<ref>[http://www.bcri.ucc.ie Boole Centre for Research in Informatics]</ref> at [[University College Cork]] are named in his honour.
 
===19th-century development===
Boole's work was extended and refined by a number of writers, beginning with [[William Stanley Jevons]]. [[Augustus De Morgan]] had worked on the [[logic of relations]], and [[Charles Sanders Peirce]] integrated his work with Boole's during the 1870s.<ref name=GGB>[[Ivor Grattan-Guinness]], [[Gérard Bornet]], ''George Boole: Selected manuscripts on logic and its philosophy'' (1997), p. xlvi; [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pzg7UFsIVJIC&pg=PR46 Google Books].</ref> Other significant figures were [[Platon Sergeevich Poretskii]], and [[William Ernest Johnson]]. The conception of a Boolean algebra structure on equivalent statements of a [[propositional calculus]] is credited to [[Hugh MacColl]] (1877), in work surveyed 15 years later by Johnson.<ref name=GGB/> Surveys of these developments were published by [[Ernst Schröder]], [[Louis Couturat]], and [[Clarence Irving Lewis]].
 
===20th-century development===
In 1921 the economist [[John Maynard Keynes]] published a book on probability theory, ''A Treatise of Probability''. Keynes believed that Boole had made a fundamental error in his definition of independence which vitiated much of his analysis.<ref>Chapter XVI, p. 167, section 6 of ''A treatise on probability'', volume 4: "The central error in his system of probability arises out of his giving two inconsistent definitions of 'independence' (2) He first wins the reader's acquiescence by giving a perfectly correct definition: "Two events are said to be independent when the probability of either of them is unaffected by our ''expectation'' of the occurrence or failure of the other." (3) But a moment later he interprets the term in quite a different sense; for, according to Boole's second definition, we must regard the events as independent unless we are told either that they ''must'' concur or that they ''cannot'' concur. That is to say, they are independent unless we know for certain that there is, in fact, an invariable connection between them. "The simple events, ''x'', ''y'', ''z'', will be said to be ''conditioned'' when they are not free to occur in every possible combination; in other words, when some compound event depending upon them is precluded from occurring. ... Simple unconditioned events are by definition independent." (1) In fact as long as ''xz'' is ''possible'', ''x'' and ''z'' are independent. This is plainly inconsistent with Boole's first definition, with which he makes no attempt to reconcile it. The consequences of his employing the term independence in a double sense are far-reaching. For he uses a method of reduction which is only valid when the arguments to which it is applied are independent in the first sense, and assumes that it is valid if they are independent in second sense. While his theorems are true if all propositions or events involved are independent in the first sense, they are not true, as he supposes them to be, if the events are independent only in the second sense."</ref> In his book ''The Last Challenge Problem'', David Miller provides a general method in accord with Boole's system and attempts to solve the problems recognised earlier by Keynes and others. Theodore Hailperin showed much earlier that Boole had used the correct mathematical definition of independence in his worked out problems <ref name=Miller>[http://zeteticgleanings.com/boole.html http://zeteticgleanings.com/boole.html]</ref>
 
[[File:Hasse2Free.png|thumb|In modern notation, the [[free Boolean algebra]] on basic propositions ''p'' and ''q'' arranged in a [[Hasse diagram]]. The Boolean combinations make up 16 different propositions, and the lines show which are logically related.]]
 
Boole's work and that of later logicians initially appeared to have no engineering uses. [[Claude Shannon]] attended a philosophy class at the [[University of Michigan]] which introduced him to Boole's studies. Shannon recognised that Boole's work could form the basis of mechanisms and processes in the real world and that it was therefore highly relevant. In 1937 Shannon went on to write a master's thesis, at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], in which he showed how Boolean algebra could optimise the design of systems of electromechanical [[relays]] then used in telephone routing switches. He also proved that circuits with relays could solve Boolean algebra problems. Employing the properties of electrical switches to process logic is the basic concept that underlies all modern electronic [[digital computer]]s. [[Victor Shestakov]] at Moscow State University (1907–1987) proposed a theory of electric switches based on Boolean logic even earlier than [[Claude Shannon]] in 1935 on the testimony of Soviet logicians and mathematicians [[Yanovskaya]], Gaaze-Rapoport, [[Dobrushin]], Lupanov, Medvedev and Uspensky, though they presented their academic theses in the same year, 1938.{{Clarify|date=June 2009}} But the first publication of Shestakov's result took place only in 1941 (in Russian). Hence Boolean algebra became the foundation of practical [[digital circuit]] design; and Boole, via Shannon and Shestakov, provided the theoretical grounding for the [[Digital Age]].<ref>"That dissertation has since been hailed as one of the most significant master's theses of the 20th century. To all intents and purposes, its use of binary code and Boolean algebra paved the way for the digital circuitry that is crucial to the operation of modern computers and telecommunications equipment."{{cite web |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2001/mar/08/obituaries.news |publisher=The Guardian |location=United Kingdom |date=8 March 2001 |title=Claude Shannon |first=Andrew |last=Emerson}}</ref>{{-}}
 
==Views==
Boole's views were given in four published addresses: ''The Genius of Sir Isaac Newton''; ''The Right Use of Leisure''; ''The Claims of Science''; and ''The Social Aspect of Intellectual Culture''.<ref>1902 ''Britannica'' article by Jevons; [http://www.1902encyclopedia.com/B/BOO/george-boole.html online text.]</ref> The first of these was from 1835, when [[Charles Anderson-Pelham, 2nd Baron Yarborough]] gave a bust of Newton to the Mechanics' Institute in Lincoln.<ref>James Gasser, ''A Boole Anthology: recent and classical studies in the logic of George Boole'' (2000), p. 5; [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A2Q5Yghl000C&pg=PA5 Google Books].</ref> The second justified and celebrated in 1847 the outcome of the successful campaign for early closing in Lincoln, headed by Alexander Leslie-Melville, of [[Branston Hall]].<ref>Gasser, p. 10; [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A2Q5Yghl000C&pg=PA10 Google Books].</ref> ''The Claims of Science'' was given in 1851 at Queen's College, Cork.<ref>{{cite book|last=Boole |first=George |title=The Claims of Science, especially as founded in its relations to human nature; a lecture |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BAlcAAAAQAAJ |accessdate=4 March 2012 |year=1851}}</ref> ''The Social Aspect of Intellectual Culture'' was also given in Cork, in 1855 to the Cuvierian Society.<ref>{{cite book |last=Boole |first=George |title=The Social Aspect of Intellectual Culture: an address delivered in the Cork Athenæum, May 29th, 1855 : at the soirée of the Cuvierian Society |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=PFWkZwEACAAJ |accessdate=4 March 2012 |year=1855 |publisher=George Purcell & Co.}}</ref>
 
Boole read a wide variety of Christian theology. Combining his interests in mathematics and theology, he compared the Christian trinity of Father, Son, and Holy Ghost with the three dimensions of space, and was attracted to the Hebrew conception of God as an absolute unity. Boole considered converting to [[Judaism]] but in the end was said to have chosen [[Unitarianism]]. However, his biographer, Des MacHale, describes him as an "agnostic deist".<ref>{{cite book|title=Semiotica, Volume 105|year=1995|publisher=Mouton|page=56|author1=International Association for Semiotic Studies |author2=International Council for Philosophy and Humanistic Studies |author3=International Social Science Council|accessdate=31 March 2013|chapter=A tale of two amateurs|quote=MacHale's biography calls George Boole 'an agnostic deist'. Both Booles' classification of 'religious philosophies' as monistic, dualistic, and trinitarian left little doubt about their preference for 'the unity religion', whether Judaic or Unitarian.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Semiotica, Volume 105|year=1996|publisher=Mouton|page=17|author1=International Association for Semiotic Studies |author2=International Council for Philosophy and Humanistic Studies |author3=International Social Science Council|accessdate=31 March 2013|quote=MacHale does not repress this or other evidence of the Boole's nineteenth-century beliefs and practices in the paranormal and in religious mysticism. He even concedes that George Boole's many distinguished contributions to logic and mathematics may have been motivated by his distinctive religious beliefs as an "agnostic deist" and by an unusual personal sensitivity to the sufferings of other people.}}</ref>
 
Two influences on Boole were later claimed by his wife, [[Mary Everest Boole]]: a universal mysticism tempered by [[Jewish]] thought, and [[Indian logic]].<ref name=Ganeri>Jonardon Ganeri (2001), ''Indian Logic: a reader'', Routledge, p. 7, ISBN 0-7007-1306-9; [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t_nOiqFmxOIC&pg=PA7 Google Books].</ref> Mary Boole stated that an adolescent mystical experience provided for his life's work:
<blockquote>My husband told me that when he was a lad of seventeen a thought struck him suddenly, which became the foundation of all his future discoveries. It was a flash of psychological insight into the conditions under which a mind most readily accumulates knowledge [...] For a few years he supposed himself to be convinced of the truth of "the Bible" as a whole, and even intended to take orders as a clergyman of the English Church. But by the help of a learned [[Jew]] in Lincoln he found out the true nature of the discovery which had dawned on him. This was that man's mind works by means of some mechanism which "functions normally towards [[Monism]]."<ref name=MaryBoole>Boole, Mary Everest ''Indian Thought and Western Science in the Nineteenth Century'', Boole, Mary Everest ''Collected Works'' eds. E. M. Cobham and E. S. Dummer, London, Daniel 1931 pp.947–967</ref></blockquote>
 
In Ch. 13 of ''Laws of Thought'' Boole used examples of propositions from [[Benedict Spinoza]] and [[Samuel Clarke]]. The work contains some remarks on the relationship of logic to religion, but they are slight and cryptic.<ref>Grattan-Guinness and Bornet, p. 16; [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pzg7UFsIVJIC&pg=PR16 Google Books].</ref> Boole was apparently disconcerted at the book's reception just as a mathematical toolset:
<blockquote>George afterwards learned, to his great joy, that the same conception of the basis of Logic was held by Leibnitz, the contemporary of Newton. De Morgan, of course, understood the formula in its true sense; he was Boole's collaborator all along. Herbert Spencer, Jowett, and [[Leslie Ellis]] understood, I feel sure; and a few others, but nearly all the logicians and [[mathematician]]s ignored [953] the statement that the book was meant to throw light on the nature of the human mind; and treated the formula entirely as a wonderful new method of reducing to logical order masses of evidence about external fact.<ref name=MaryBoole/></blockquote>
 
Mary Boole claimed that there was profound influence&nbsp;— via her uncle [[George Everest]]&nbsp;— of [[India]]n thought on George Boole, as well as on [[Augustus De Morgan]] and [[Charles Babbage]]:
<blockquote>Think what must have been the effect of the intense Hinduizing of three such men as Babbage, De Morgan, and George Boole on the mathematical atmosphere of 1830–65. What share had it in generating the [[Vector Analysis]] and the mathematics by which investigations in physical science are now conducted?<ref name=MaryBoole/></blockquote>
 
==Family==
In 1855 he married [[Mary Everest Boole|Mary Everest]] (niece of [[George Everest]]), who later wrote several educational works on her husband's principles.
 
The Booles had five daughters:
* Mary Lucy Margret (1856–1908)<ref>''`My Right To Die´, Woman Kills Self'' in ''The Washington Times'' v. 28 May 1908 ([http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84026749/1908-05-28/ed-1/seq-1.pdf PDF]); ''Mrs. Mary Hinton A Suicide'' in ''The New York Times'' v. 29 May 1908 ([http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9E02E5DB1631E233A2575AC2A9639C946997D6CF PDF]).</ref> who married the mathematician and author [[Charles Howard Hinton]] and had four children: George (1882–1943), Eric (*1884), William (1886–1909)<ref>''Smothers In Orchard'' in ''The Los Angeles Times'' v. 27 February 1909.</ref> and Sebastian (1887–1923) inventor of the [[Jungle gym]]. Sebastian had three children:
**[[William H. Hinton]] (1919–2004) visited China in the 1930s and 40s and wrote an influential account of the Communist land reform.
**[[Joan Hinton]] (1921–2010) worked for the [[Manhattan Project]] and lived in China from 1948 until her death on 8 June 2010; she was married to [[Sid Engst]].
**Jean Hinton (married name Rosner) (1917–2002) peace activist.
* Margaret, (1858&nbsp;– ?) married [[Edward Ingram Taylor]], an artist.
** Their elder son [[Geoffrey Ingram Taylor]] became a mathematician and a Fellow of the [[Royal Society]].
** Their younger son [[Julian Taylor (surgeon)|Julian]] was a professor of surgery.
* [[Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia]] (1860–1940), who made important contributions to four-dimensional geometry
* [[Lucy Everest Boole|Lucy Everest]] (1862–1905), who was first female professor of chemistry in England
* [[Ethel Lilian Voynich|Ethel Lilian]] (1864–1960), who married the Polish scientist and revolutionary [[Wilfrid Michael Voynich]] and was the author of the novel ''[[The Gadfly]]''.
 
==References==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Boole, George}}
*[[Ivor Grattan-Guinness]], ''The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870–1940''. Princeton University Press. 2000.
*[[Francis Hill]] (1974), ''Victorian Lincoln''; [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-A89AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA149 Google Books].
*[[Des MacHale]], '' George Boole: His Life and Work''. [http://boolepress.com/ Boole Press]. 1985.
*[[Stephen Hawking]], '' God Created the Integers''. Running Press, Philadelphia. 2007.
{{Refend}}
 
==Notes==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
 
==External links==
{{Portal|Biography|Logic}}
 
{{Sister project links| wikt=no | commons=Category:George Boole | b=no | n=no | q=George Boole | s=Author:George Boole | v=no | voy=no | species=no | d=q134661}}
*[http://www.rogerparsons.info/george/boole.html Roger Parsons' article on Boole]
*{{gutenberg author|id=George_Boole|name=George Boole}}
*[http://www.ucc.ie/academic/undersci/pages/sci_georgeboole.htm George Boole's work as first Professor of Mathematics in University College, Cork, Ireland]
 
{{Logic}}
{{Authority control|VIAF=49282014|PND=118661655|LCCN=n/83/144364}}
 
{{Persondata <!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]]. -->
| NAME              = Boole, George
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = British mathematician
| DATE OF BIRTH    = 2 November 1815
| PLACE OF BIRTH    = [[Lincoln, Lincolnshire]], England
| DATE OF DEATH    = 8 December 1864
| PLACE OF DEATH    = [[Ballintemple]], [[County Cork]], Ireland
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Boole, George}}
[[Category:1815 births]]
[[Category:1864 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Lincoln, England]]
[[Category:Deists]]
[[Category:English agnostics]]
[[Category:English logicians]]
[[Category:English philosophers]]
[[Category:English Unitarians]]
[[Category:Victorian writers]]
[[Category:19th-century English writers]]
[[Category:19th-century English mathematicians]]
[[Category:19th-century philosophers]]
[[Category:Mathematical logicians]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:Academics of Queens College Cork]]
[[Category:Royal Medal winners]]

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George Boole (Template:IPAc-en; 2 November 1815 – 8 December 1864) was an English mathematician, philosopher and logician. He worked in the fields of differential equations and algebraic logic, and is now best known as the author of The Laws of Thought. As the inventor of the prototype of what is now called Boolean logic, which became the basis of the modern digital computer, Boole is regarded in hindsight as a founder of the field of computer science. Boole said,

... no general method for the solution of questions in the theory of probabilities can be established which does not explicitly recognise ... those universal laws of thought which are the basis of all reasoning ...[1]

Early life

Boole was born in Lincoln, Lincolnshire. His father, John Boole (1779–1848), was a tradesman in Lincoln,[2] and gave him lessons. He had an elementary school education, but little further formal and academic teaching. William Brooke, a bookseller in Lincoln, may have helped him with Latin; which he may also have learned at the school of Thomas Bainbridge. He was self-taught in modern languages.[3] At age 16 Boole became the breadwinner for his parents and three younger siblings, taking up a junior teaching position in Doncaster, at Heigham's School.[4] He taught briefly in Liverpool.[5]

Boole participated in the local Mechanics Institute, the Lincoln Mechanics' Institution, which was founded in 1833.[3][6] Edward Bromhead, who knew John Boole through the Institution, helped George Boole with mathematics books;[7] and he was given the calculus text of Sylvestre François Lacroix by Rev. George Stevens Dickson, of St Swithin Lincoln.[8] Without a teacher, it took him many years to master calculus.[5]

Boole's Lincoln House

At age 19 Boole successfully established his own school at Lincoln. Four years later he took over Hall's Academy, at Waddington, outside Lincoln, following the death of Robert Hall. In 1840 he moved back to Lincoln, where he ran a boarding school.[5]

Boole became a prominent local figure, an admirer of John Kaye, the bishop.[9] He took part in the local campaign for early closing.[3] With E. R. Larken and others he set up a building society in 1847.[10] He associated also with the Chartist Thomas Cooper, whose wife was a relation.[11]

From 1838 onwards Boole was making contacts with sympathetic British academic mathematicians, and reading more widely. He studied algebra in the form of symbolic methods, as these were understood at the time, and began to publish research papers.[5]

Professor at Cork

File:Boole House Cork.jpg
The house in Cork in which Boole lived between 1849 and 1855.

Boole's status as mathematician was recognised by his appointment in 1849 as the first professor of mathematics at Queen's College, Cork in Ireland. He met his future wife, Mary Everest, there in 1850 while she was visiting her uncle John Ryall who was Professor of Greek. They married some years later.[12] He maintained his ties with Lincoln, working there with E. R. Larken in a campaign to reduce prostitution.[13]

Boole was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1857;[8] and received honorary degrees of LL.D. from the University of Dublin and Oxford University.[14]

Death

On 8 December 1864, Boole died of an attack of fever, ending in pleural effusion. He was buried in the Church of Ireland cemetery of St Michael's, Church Road, Blackrock (a suburb of Cork City). There is a commemorative plaque inside the adjoining church.Potter or Ceramic Artist Truman Bedell from Rexton, has interests which include ceramics, best property developers in singapore developers in singapore and scrabble. Was especially enthused after visiting Alejandro de Humboldt National Park.

Boole's gravestone, Cork, Ireland.
Detail of stained glass window in Lincoln Cathedral dedicated to George Boole.
Plaque beneath Boole's window in Lincoln Cathedral.

Works

Boole's first published paper was Researches in the theory of analytical transformations, with a special application to the reduction of the general equation of the second order, printed in the Cambridge Mathematical Journal in February 1840 (Volume 2, no. 8, pp. 64–73), and it led to a friendship between Boole and Duncan Farquharson Gregory, the editor of the journal. His works are in about 50 articles and a few separate publications.[15]

In 1841 Boole published an influential paper in early invariant theory.[8] He received a medal from the Royal Society for his memoir of 1844, On A General Method of Analysis. It was a contribution to the theory of linear differential equations, moving from the case of constant coefficients on which he had already published, to variable coefficients.[16] The innovation in operational methods is to admit that operations may not commute.[17] In 1847 Boole published The Mathematical Analysis of Logic , the first of his works on symbolic logic.[18]

Differential equations

Two systematic treatises on mathematical subjects were completed by Boole during his lifetime. The Treatise on Differential Equations appeared in 1859, and was followed, the next year, by a Treatise on the Calculus of Finite Differences, a sequel to the former work. In the sixteenth and seventeenth chapters of the Differential Equations is an account of the general symbolic method, and of a general method in analysis, originally described in his memoir printed in the Philosophical Transactions for 1844.Potter or Ceramic Artist Truman Bedell from Rexton, has interests which include ceramics, best property developers in singapore developers in singapore and scrabble. Was especially enthused after visiting Alejandro de Humboldt National Park.

During the last few years of his life Boole worked on a second edition of his Differential Equations, and part of his last vacation was spent in the libraries of the Royal Society and the British Museum; but it was left incomplete. Isaac Todhunter printed the manuscripts in 1865, in a supplementary volume.Potter or Ceramic Artist Truman Bedell from Rexton, has interests which include ceramics, best property developers in singapore developers in singapore and scrabble. Was especially enthused after visiting Alejandro de Humboldt National Park.

Analysis

In 1857, Boole published the treatise On the Comparison of Transcendents, with Certain Applications to the Theory of Definite Integrals,[19] in which he studied the sum of residues of a rational function. Among other results, he proved what is now called Boole's identity:

for any real numbers ak > 0, bk, and t > 0.[20] Generalisations of this identity play an important role in the theory of the Hilbert transform.[20]

Symbolic logic

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. In 1847 Boole published the pamphlet Mathematical Analysis of Logic. He later regarded it as a flawed exposition of his logical system, and wanted An Investigation of the Laws of Thought (1854), on Which are Founded the Mathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities to be seen as the mature statement of his views. Contrary to widespread belief, Boole never intended to criticize or disagree with the main principles of Aristotle’s logic. Rather he intended to systematize it, to provide it with a foundation, and to extend its range of applicability.[21] Boole's initial involvement in logic was prompted by a current debate on quantification, between Sir William Hamilton who supported the theory of "quantification of the predicate", and Boole's supporter Augustus De Morgan who advanced a version of De Morgan duality, as it is now called. Boole's approach was ultimately much further reaching than either sides' in the controversy.[22] It founded what was first known as the "algebra of logic" tradition.[23]

Boole did not regard logic as a branch of mathematics, but he provided a general symbolic method of logical inference. Boole proposed that logical propositions should be expressed by means of algebraic equations. Algebraic manipulation of the symbols in the equations would provide a fail-safe method of logical deduction: i.e. logic is reduced to a type of algebra.Potter or Ceramic Artist Truman Bedell from Rexton, has interests which include ceramics, best property developers in singapore developers in singapore and scrabble. Was especially enthused after visiting Alejandro de Humboldt National Park.

By 1 (unity) Boole denoted the "universe of thinkable objects"; literal symbols, such as x, y, z, v, u, etc., were used with the "elective" meaning attaching to adjectives and nouns of natural language. Thus, if x = horned and y = sheep, then the successive acts of election (i.e. choice) represented by x and y, if performed on unity, give the class "horned sheep". Thus, (1 – x) would represent the operation of selecting all things in the world except horned things, that is, all not horned things, and (1 – x) (1 – y) would give all things neither horned nor sheep.Potter or Ceramic Artist Truman Bedell from Rexton, has interests which include ceramics, best property developers in singapore developers in singapore and scrabble. Was especially enthused after visiting Alejandro de Humboldt National Park.Among his many innovations is his principle of wholistic reference, which was later, and probably independently, adopted by Gottlob Frege and by logicians who subscribe to standard first-order logic. A 2003 article[24] provides a systematic comparison and critical evaluation of Aristotelian logic and Boolean logic; it also reveals the centrality of wholistic reference in Boole's philosophy of logic.

Boole’s 1854 Definition of Universe of Discourse

In every discourse, whether of the mind conversing with its own thoughts, or of the individual in his intercourse with others, there is an assumed or expressed limit within which the subjects of its operation are confined. The most unfettered discourse is that in which the words we use are understood in the widest possible application, and for them the limits of discourse are co-extensive with those of the universe itself. But more usually we confine ourselves to a less spacious field. Sometimes, in discoursing of men we imply (without expressing the limitation) that it is of men only under certain circumstances and conditions that we speak, as of civilized men, or of men in the vigour of life, or of men under some other condition or relation. Now, whatever may be the extent of the field within which all the objects of our discourse are found, that field may properly be termed the universe of discourse. Furthermore, this universe of discourse is in the strictest sense the ultimate subject of the discourse.[25]

Treatment of addition in logic

Boole conceived of "elective symbols" of his kind as an algebraic structure. But this general concept was not available to him: he did not have the segregation standard in abstract algebra of postulated (axiomatic) properties of operations, and deduced properties.[26] His work was a beginning to the algebra of sets, again not a concept available to Boole as a familiar model. His pioneering efforts encountered specific difficulties, and the treatment of addition was an obvious difficulty in the early days.

Boole replaced the operation of multiplication by the word 'and' and addition by the word 'or'. But in Boole's original system, + was a partial operation: in the language of set theory it would correspond only to disjoint union of subsets. Later authors changed the interpretation, commonly reading it as exclusive or, or in set theory terms symmetric difference; this step means that addition is always defined.[23][27]

In fact there is the other possibility, that + should be read as disjunction,[26] This other possibility extends from the disjoint union case, where exclusive or and non-exclusive or both give the same answer. Handling this ambiguity was an early problem of the theory, reflecting the modern use of both Boolean rings and Boolean algebras (which are simply different aspects of one type of structure). Boole and Jevons struggled over just this issue in 1863, in the form of the correct evaluation of x + x. Jevons argued for the result x, which is correct for + as disjunction. Boole kept the result as something undefined. He argued against the result 0, which is correct for exclusive or, because he saw the equation x + x = 0 as implying x = 0, a false analogy with ordinary algebra.[8]

Probability theory

The second part of the Laws of Thought contained a corresponding attempt to discover a general method in probabilities. Here the goal was algorithmic: from the given probabilities of any system of events, to determine the consequent probability of any other event logically connected with the those events.[28]

Legacy

Boolean algebra is named after him, as is the crater Boole on the Moon. The keyword Bool represents a Boolean datatype in many programming languages, though Pascal and Java, among others, both use the full name Boolean.[29] The library, underground lecture theatre complex and the Boole Centre for Research in Informatics[30] at University College Cork are named in his honour.

19th-century development

Boole's work was extended and refined by a number of writers, beginning with William Stanley Jevons. Augustus De Morgan had worked on the logic of relations, and Charles Sanders Peirce integrated his work with Boole's during the 1870s.[31] Other significant figures were Platon Sergeevich Poretskii, and William Ernest Johnson. The conception of a Boolean algebra structure on equivalent statements of a propositional calculus is credited to Hugh MacColl (1877), in work surveyed 15 years later by Johnson.[31] Surveys of these developments were published by Ernst Schröder, Louis Couturat, and Clarence Irving Lewis.

20th-century development

In 1921 the economist John Maynard Keynes published a book on probability theory, A Treatise of Probability. Keynes believed that Boole had made a fundamental error in his definition of independence which vitiated much of his analysis.[32] In his book The Last Challenge Problem, David Miller provides a general method in accord with Boole's system and attempts to solve the problems recognised earlier by Keynes and others. Theodore Hailperin showed much earlier that Boole had used the correct mathematical definition of independence in his worked out problems [33]

In modern notation, the free Boolean algebra on basic propositions p and q arranged in a Hasse diagram. The Boolean combinations make up 16 different propositions, and the lines show which are logically related.

Boole's work and that of later logicians initially appeared to have no engineering uses. Claude Shannon attended a philosophy class at the University of Michigan which introduced him to Boole's studies. Shannon recognised that Boole's work could form the basis of mechanisms and processes in the real world and that it was therefore highly relevant. In 1937 Shannon went on to write a master's thesis, at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, in which he showed how Boolean algebra could optimise the design of systems of electromechanical relays then used in telephone routing switches. He also proved that circuits with relays could solve Boolean algebra problems. Employing the properties of electrical switches to process logic is the basic concept that underlies all modern electronic digital computers. Victor Shestakov at Moscow State University (1907–1987) proposed a theory of electric switches based on Boolean logic even earlier than Claude Shannon in 1935 on the testimony of Soviet logicians and mathematicians Yanovskaya, Gaaze-Rapoport, Dobrushin, Lupanov, Medvedev and Uspensky, though they presented their academic theses in the same year, 1938.Template:Clarify But the first publication of Shestakov's result took place only in 1941 (in Russian). Hence Boolean algebra became the foundation of practical digital circuit design; and Boole, via Shannon and Shestakov, provided the theoretical grounding for the Digital Age.[34]Benefits of Residing in a Apartment or Landed property in Singapore Property New Launches & Project Showcase In Singapore Many residential Singapore property sales involve buying property in Singapore at new launches. These are often homes underneath building, being sold new by developers. New Launch Singapore Property, 28 Imperial Residences Coming To Geylang Lorong 26 The property market is slowing down, based on personal property transactions in May Cell Apps FREE Sign Up Log in Property Brokers Feedback

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Views

Boole's views were given in four published addresses: The Genius of Sir Isaac Newton; The Right Use of Leisure; The Claims of Science; and The Social Aspect of Intellectual Culture.[35] The first of these was from 1835, when Charles Anderson-Pelham, 2nd Baron Yarborough gave a bust of Newton to the Mechanics' Institute in Lincoln.[36] The second justified and celebrated in 1847 the outcome of the successful campaign for early closing in Lincoln, headed by Alexander Leslie-Melville, of Branston Hall.[37] The Claims of Science was given in 1851 at Queen's College, Cork.[38] The Social Aspect of Intellectual Culture was also given in Cork, in 1855 to the Cuvierian Society.[39]

Boole read a wide variety of Christian theology. Combining his interests in mathematics and theology, he compared the Christian trinity of Father, Son, and Holy Ghost with the three dimensions of space, and was attracted to the Hebrew conception of God as an absolute unity. Boole considered converting to Judaism but in the end was said to have chosen Unitarianism. However, his biographer, Des MacHale, describes him as an "agnostic deist".[40][41]

Two influences on Boole were later claimed by his wife, Mary Everest Boole: a universal mysticism tempered by Jewish thought, and Indian logic.[42] Mary Boole stated that an adolescent mystical experience provided for his life's work:

My husband told me that when he was a lad of seventeen a thought struck him suddenly, which became the foundation of all his future discoveries. It was a flash of psychological insight into the conditions under which a mind most readily accumulates knowledge [...] For a few years he supposed himself to be convinced of the truth of "the Bible" as a whole, and even intended to take orders as a clergyman of the English Church. But by the help of a learned Jew in Lincoln he found out the true nature of the discovery which had dawned on him. This was that man's mind works by means of some mechanism which "functions normally towards Monism."[43]

In Ch. 13 of Laws of Thought Boole used examples of propositions from Benedict Spinoza and Samuel Clarke. The work contains some remarks on the relationship of logic to religion, but they are slight and cryptic.[44] Boole was apparently disconcerted at the book's reception just as a mathematical toolset:

George afterwards learned, to his great joy, that the same conception of the basis of Logic was held by Leibnitz, the contemporary of Newton. De Morgan, of course, understood the formula in its true sense; he was Boole's collaborator all along. Herbert Spencer, Jowett, and Leslie Ellis understood, I feel sure; and a few others, but nearly all the logicians and mathematicians ignored [953] the statement that the book was meant to throw light on the nature of the human mind; and treated the formula entirely as a wonderful new method of reducing to logical order masses of evidence about external fact.[43]

Mary Boole claimed that there was profound influence — via her uncle George Everest — of Indian thought on George Boole, as well as on Augustus De Morgan and Charles Babbage:

Think what must have been the effect of the intense Hinduizing of three such men as Babbage, De Morgan, and George Boole on the mathematical atmosphere of 1830–65. What share had it in generating the Vector Analysis and the mathematics by which investigations in physical science are now conducted?[43]

Family

In 1855 he married Mary Everest (niece of George Everest), who later wrote several educational works on her husband's principles.

The Booles had five daughters:

  • Mary Lucy Margret (1856–1908)[45] who married the mathematician and author Charles Howard Hinton and had four children: George (1882–1943), Eric (*1884), William (1886–1909)[46] and Sebastian (1887–1923) inventor of the Jungle gym. Sebastian had three children:
    • William H. Hinton (1919–2004) visited China in the 1930s and 40s and wrote an influential account of the Communist land reform.
    • Joan Hinton (1921–2010) worked for the Manhattan Project and lived in China from 1948 until her death on 8 June 2010; she was married to Sid Engst.
    • Jean Hinton (married name Rosner) (1917–2002) peace activist.
  • Margaret, (1858 – ?) married Edward Ingram Taylor, an artist.
  • Alicia (1860–1940), who made important contributions to four-dimensional geometry
  • Lucy Everest (1862–1905), who was first female professor of chemistry in England
  • Ethel Lilian (1864–1960), who married the Polish scientist and revolutionary Wilfrid Michael Voynich and was the author of the novel The Gadfly.

References

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Notes

43 year old Petroleum Engineer Harry from Deep River, usually spends time with hobbies and interests like renting movies, property developers in singapore new condominium and vehicle racing. Constantly enjoys going to destinations like Camino Real de Tierra Adentro.

External links

Sportspersons Hyslop from Nicolet, usually spends time with pastimes for example martial arts, property developers condominium in singapore singapore and hot rods. Maintains a trip site and has lots to write about after touring Gulf of Porto: Calanche of Piana.

Singapore has elevated a tax on foreign property buyers as part of new non permanent measures to chill its residential housing market which has seen continued strong demand regardless of previous efforts to curb prices.

This doc has been ready by All Property Solutions Singapore Pte Ltd. The information including all materials, estimates, calculations, opinions or suggestions contained in this doc have been provided in good faith and have been primarily based on info received from sources All Property Solutions Singapore Pte Ltd has accepted in good faith. No guarantee is made as to the accuracy or reliability of any info contained on this document and neither All Property Options Singapore Pte Ltd nor any individuals involved within the preparation of this doc settle for any form of legal responsibility for its content material.

Rare Industrial Development within Pandan Food Zone area up for sale A home mortgage or mortgage loan is a mortgage to purchase property and secured on the property that you purchase. A house loan is usually repayable in monthly instalments. Earlier than taking over a house mortgage, just remember to can afford the repayments. Do ask for a repayment schedule to help you estimate costs. Starting from March 2012, your bank also needs to give you a residential property mortgage fact sheet to help you perceive the terms of the mortgage. The Topiary EC @ Fernvale any unit in an authorised condominium improvement under the Planning Act; and Approval must be obtained from the Minister for Regulation to buy a restricted residential property. GETTING YOUR PROPERTY SOLD / LEASED? SLA website

Previous rounds of Government measures have had a moderating effect on residential property costs. There is additionally vital provide of housing that may come onto the market over the next two years. Nonetheless, prices in both the HDB resale market and personal residential property have continued to rise in Q2 and Q3 of 2012. Lease Property District 06 Hire Property District 07 Rent Property District 08 Hire Property District 09 Hire Property District 22 Lease Property District 26 Lease Property District 27 JLL appointed unique agent for the sale of 2, 4 and 6 Dunlop Avenue by Expression of Curiosity. Freehold improvement within the prestigious Ardmore Park / Claymore district with potential for en bloc sale Forestville EC @ Woodlands An EC with Iconic Skypark! Home Viewing

Mortgages might be obtained for buy of all freehold properties and some leasehold properties relying upon the utilization and the unexpired lease term. New leasehold residential properties which typically come with ninety nine years leasehold shouldn't be a problem. Banks could also be unwilling to provide loans for residential properties with lower than 60 years unexpired lease. Condominiums are a preferred choice with both expatriates and locals. The huge vary of amenities, from swimming pool and fitness center to round the clock security and scenic surroundings, provide for a snug lifestyle, especially for families. For a listing of condominiums, click on right here Sign an inventory listing of all of the items offered by the owner, together with their condition. Housing mortgage repayments

In case you're searching for a new launching property dwelling or selling one, now you can negotiate together with your property agent on the suitable fee. The Institute of Estate Brokers (IEA) will take away its guidelines on property brokers' commissions subsequent month, to fall according to the Competition Act. In line with latest official figures, there has additionally been little upward movement within the non-public property rental market. Rent House District 05 Rent Home District 06 Hire House District 07 Hire Home District 08 Rent House District 09 Hire House District 10 Lease Home District eleven Hire Home District 12 Hire Home District thirteen Hire House District 14 Hire Home District 15 Hire House District 16 Rent Home District 18 Lease Home District 20 Lease Home District 21 Rent Home District 22 Lease House District 23 Hire House District 24

Equally, jojoba oil is helpful for eradicating eye makeup like kohl, liner, mascara and eyeshadow. The most effective part is this oil does not cause any eye irritation. Since the eye area may be very sensitive, you just have to use the oil with nice care and be sure to do not rub it harshly. Simply, dip a cotton pad into the oil and apply instantly over the eyelashes. Within no time, you can see that it has removed all the make-up. Common software will make the lashes extra stunning.

Template:Logic In the event you've just lately been requested by your employer to be posted to Singapore, then this website is for you. Whether or not you're single or married with kids, whether or not you are looking for a condominium, a bungalow, a semi-detached or a public condo, residing and renting a house in Singapore at this time is straightforward when you recognize the ins and outs, the dos and don'ts.

He is a rip-off!! Severely trust me he's on of the scammer agent. He made me believe that I've a spot to remain then when I was about to move the place isn't out there. Then he just took my deposit and agent's charge. By the best way he's also the landlord of the place i am presupposed to lease. He took my money and ran away. However I went to the HDB and complain him, additionally I complain straight to the police. Then the police called him and he got scared. Finally each penny that I gave him, he give it again since HDB and police office is supporting me. Don't be lazy to complain. Go straight to the police and complain these individuals.

i imagine there are good ethical brokers in Singapore. But i have encounter unhealthy experiencing the Christina Fong from realty master. She is admittedly an unprofessional and never moral one. Only considering of undercutiing and squeezing money from ptther people without defending interest of her personal shopper. Proceed to the section Training and look at a map of all worldwide colleges in Singapore or visit the section residential areas for detailed data on the place to stay and why. Information District and Location Have completed no less than 30 property transactions up to now three years. At least 10 of these transactions will have to be for private properties, and at the very least one other 10 needs to be for HDB flats (also known as public housing); Singapore-Indonesia Commercial Affiliation

Agents need to be very resourceful and so they have to work doubly onerous to succeed in out to extra consumers as a result of when the market swings, it turns into very aggressive," said PropNex Chief Executive Mohamed Ismail. "Beforehand, an agent might focus on one space, comparable to HDB, however at this time you may't." An motion for misrepresentation arises beneath the law of tort. A Misrepresentation happens when the Representor (Property Agent) makes a false assertion of existing truth with data of its falsity and with the intention that the Representee (Buyer or Seller) ought to act on it with the consequence that the Representee does act on it to his detriment. Metropolis & South West (D01-08) Tiong Bahru MRT Quiet C/Room F/Furnished w AC No Agent Price

On February 19 we had an appointment with the proprietor and his agent (A and H!) at the condominium to hand over the keys. They went by means of all the things with a wonderful tooth comb. An important lesson we learned over all this is that you simply MUST ENGAGE YOUR PERSONAL AGENT and never rely on the homeowners agent as his priority is to the proprietor not you. Nevertheless, last night time my own agent called me and informed me suddenly that ECG instructed them a buyer goes handy them a check within the morning, so we higher act fast or we may lose the property. Stamp responsibility is to be paid inside 14 days from the date of acceptance of the OTP or Sale and buy a house in singapore (click hyperlink) (S&P) Settlement. For more information, please go to www.iras.gov.sg - Gown Up Your House Woodlands East Industrial & Industrial Affiliation

There may also be a Code of Ethics and a Skilled Conduct Commonplace, as well as the introduction of disciplinary motion in opposition to errant brokers/businesses and dispute decision mechanisms. Preparations shall be made to manage the transition of existing agencies and agents to these new standards, which have but to be finalized. The Proposed Enchancment in High quality for Actual Property Businesses Wheelock Properties put up 95 items of The Panorama in Ang Mo Kio for balloting. With a reduction of 12 p.c, they claimed to promote 80 to eighty five units. Whereas developers are clearing their existing stock, every month there are new projects acquiring their HIGH and new sites released by the government to construct more private housing. The due date of each rental payment; or

To know who pays actual property commissions - whether or not it's sellers or buyers or both or if it is Landlord's or Tenant's or both Divisions vary. All Brokers work on a commission scheme that is determined by the experience, efficiency and various other elements equivalent to recruitment and many others. New brokers can receive from a range of 60%-70% of the full fee received by them from the closure of a deal. High producing brokers would possibly obtain 100% and pay the company (broker) a desk fee. Everybody else falls somewhere in between. Kindly discuss with the FAQ part of the CEA web site-www.cea.gov.sg Co-Broking / sharing of fee There isn't a set formulation. This is based on the demand and supply circumstances in the market. present agents have tertiary education.

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  1. Template:Cite web
  2. Template:Cite EB1911
  3. 3.0 3.1 3.2 Hill, p. 149; Google Books.
  4. Rhees, Rush. (1954) "George Boole as Student and Teacher. By Some of His Friends and Pupils." Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Section A: Mathematical and Physical Sciences. Vol. 57. Royal Irish Academy
  5. 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Template:MacTutor Biography
  6. Society for the History of Astronomy, Lincolnshire.
  7. Template:ODNBweb
  8. 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Template:Sep entry
  9. Hill, p. 172 note 2; Google Books.
  10. Hill, p. 130 note 1; Google Books.
  11. Hill, p. 148; Google Books.
  12. Ronald Calinger, Vita mathematica: historical research and integration with teaching (1996), p. 292; Google Books.
  13. Hill, p. 138 note 4; Google Books.
  14. Ivor Grattan-Guinness, Gérard Bornet, George Boole: Selected manuscripts on logic and its philosophy (1997), p. xiv; Google Books.
  15. A list of Boole's memoirs and papers is in the Catalogue of Scientific Memoirs published by the Royal Society, and in the supplementary volume on differential equations, edited by Isaac Todhunter. To the Cambridge Mathematical Journal and its successor, the Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical Journal, Boole contributed 22 articles in all. In the third and fourth series of the Philosophical Magazine are found 16 papers. The Royal Society printed six memoirs in the Philosophical Transactions, and a few other memoirs are to be found in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and of the Royal Irish Academy, in the Bulletin de l'Académie de St-Pétersbourg for 1862 (under the name G. Boldt, vol. iv. pp. 198–215), and in Crelle's Journal. Also included is a paper on the mathematical basis of logic, published in the Mechanic's Magazine in 1848.
  16. Andrei Nikolaevich Kolmogorov, Adolf Pavlovich Yushkevich (editors), Mathematics of the 19th Century: function theory according to Chebyshev, ordinary differential equations, calculus of variations, theory of finite differences (1998), pp. 130–2; Google Books.
  17. Jeremy Gray, Karen Hunger Parshall, Episodes in the History of Modern Algebra (1800–1950) (2007), p. 66; Google Books.
  18. George Boole, The Mathematical Analysis of Logic, Being an Essay towards a Calculus of Deductive Reasoning (London, England: Macmillan, Barclay, & Macmillan, 1847).
  19. One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  20. 20.0 20.1 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  21. JOHN CORCORAN, Aristotle's Prior Analytics and Boole's Laws of Thought, History and Philosophy of Logic, vol. 24 (2003), pp. 261–288.
  22. Template:ODNBweb
  23. 23.0 23.1 Witold Marciszewski (editor), Dictionary of Logic as Applied in the Study of Language (1981), pp. 194–5.
  24. Corcoran, John (2003). “Aristotle's Prior Analytics and Boole's Laws of Thought”. History and Philosophy of Logic, 24: 261–288. Reviewed by Risto Vilkko. Bulletin of Symbolic Logic, 11(2005) 89–91. Also by Marcel Guillaume, Mathematical Reviews 2033867 (2004m:03006).
  25. George Boole. 1854/2003. The Laws of Thought, facsimile of 1854 edition, with an introduction by J. Corcoran. Buffalo: Prometheus Books (2003). Reviewed by James van Evra in Philosophy in Review.24 (2004) 167–169.
  26. 26.0 26.1 Andrei Nikolaevich Kolmogorov, Adolf Pavlovich Yushkevich, Mathematics of the 19th Century: mathematical logic, algebra, number theory, probability theory (2001), pp. 15 (note 15)–16; Google Books.
  27. Template:Sep entry
  28. 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  29. P. J. Brown, Pascal from Basic, Addison-Wesley, 1982. ISBN 0-201-13789-5, page 72
  30. Boole Centre for Research in Informatics
  31. 31.0 31.1 Ivor Grattan-Guinness, Gérard Bornet, George Boole: Selected manuscripts on logic and its philosophy (1997), p. xlvi; Google Books.
  32. Chapter XVI, p. 167, section 6 of A treatise on probability, volume 4: "The central error in his system of probability arises out of his giving two inconsistent definitions of 'independence' (2) He first wins the reader's acquiescence by giving a perfectly correct definition: "Two events are said to be independent when the probability of either of them is unaffected by our expectation of the occurrence or failure of the other." (3) But a moment later he interprets the term in quite a different sense; for, according to Boole's second definition, we must regard the events as independent unless we are told either that they must concur or that they cannot concur. That is to say, they are independent unless we know for certain that there is, in fact, an invariable connection between them. "The simple events, x, y, z, will be said to be conditioned when they are not free to occur in every possible combination; in other words, when some compound event depending upon them is precluded from occurring. ... Simple unconditioned events are by definition independent." (1) In fact as long as xz is possible, x and z are independent. This is plainly inconsistent with Boole's first definition, with which he makes no attempt to reconcile it. The consequences of his employing the term independence in a double sense are far-reaching. For he uses a method of reduction which is only valid when the arguments to which it is applied are independent in the first sense, and assumes that it is valid if they are independent in second sense. While his theorems are true if all propositions or events involved are independent in the first sense, they are not true, as he supposes them to be, if the events are independent only in the second sense."
  33. http://zeteticgleanings.com/boole.html
  34. "That dissertation has since been hailed as one of the most significant master's theses of the 20th century. To all intents and purposes, its use of binary code and Boolean algebra paved the way for the digital circuitry that is crucial to the operation of modern computers and telecommunications equipment."Template:Cite web
  35. 1902 Britannica article by Jevons; online text.
  36. James Gasser, A Boole Anthology: recent and classical studies in the logic of George Boole (2000), p. 5; Google Books.
  37. Gasser, p. 10; Google Books.
  38. 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  39. 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  40. 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  41. 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  42. Jonardon Ganeri (2001), Indian Logic: a reader, Routledge, p. 7, ISBN 0-7007-1306-9; Google Books.
  43. 43.0 43.1 43.2 Boole, Mary Everest Indian Thought and Western Science in the Nineteenth Century, Boole, Mary Everest Collected Works eds. E. M. Cobham and E. S. Dummer, London, Daniel 1931 pp.947–967
  44. Grattan-Guinness and Bornet, p. 16; Google Books.
  45. `My Right To Die´, Woman Kills Self in The Washington Times v. 28 May 1908 (PDF); Mrs. Mary Hinton A Suicide in The New York Times v. 29 May 1908 (PDF).
  46. Smothers In Orchard in The Los Angeles Times v. 27 February 1909.