|
|
| Line 1: |
Line 1: |
| {{More footnotes|date=November 2013}}
| | My name's Aiden Quirk but everybody calls me Aiden. I'm from Australia. I'm studying at the college (2nd year) and I play the Guitar for 9 years. Usually I choose music from my famous films ;). <br>I have two brothers. I love Metal detecting, watching TV (Grey's Anatomy) and Amateur geology.<br><br>Review my homepage - [http://www.evisa.com.vn/ vietnam visa on arrival] |
| [[Image:Standard Model of Elementary Particles.svg|thumb|350px|The [[Standard Model]] of elementary particles, with the [[fermions]] in the first three columns, the [[gauge bosons]] in the fourth column and the [[Higgs boson]] in the fifth column.]]
| |
| | |
| '''Fundamental interactions''', also called '''fundamental forces''' or '''interactive forces''', are modeled in fundamental [[physics]] as patterns of relations in physical systems, evolving over time, that appear not reducible to relations among entities more basic. Four fundamental interactions are conventionally recognized: [[gravitational]], [[electromagnetic force|electromagnetic]], [[strong interaction|strong nuclear]], and [[weak interaction|weak nuclear]]. Everyday phenomena of human experience are mediated via gravitation and electromagnetism. The strong interaction, synthesizing [[chemical elements]] via [[nuclear fusion]] within [[star]]s, holds together the [[atom]]'s [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]], and is released during an [[atomic bomb]]'s detonation. The weak interaction is involved in [[radioactive decay]]. (Speculations of a [[fifth force]]—perhaps an added gravitational effect—remain widely disputed.)
| |
| | |
| In [[modern physics]], gravitation is the only fundamental interaction still modeled as [[classical physics|classical]]/continuous (versus [[quantum physics|quantum]]/discrete). Acting over potentially infinite distance, traversing the known universe, gravitation is conventionally ''explained'' by physicists as a consequence of [[spacetime]]'s dynamic geometry, "curved" in the vicinity of mass or energy, via [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s [[general theory of relativity]] (GR). For practical purposes, however, modest gravitational effects are conventionally ''predicted'' via [[analytical mechanics|refinements]] of [[Isaac Newton|Newton]]'s [[law of universal gravitation|theory of universal gravitation]] (UG). UG and GR comprise [[classical mechanics]], although GR additionally models gravitation within [[relativistic mechanics]], whereby spatial and temporal relations are notably altered in the vicinity of vast mass or vast speed. Relativistic effects on space and time via vast speed but amid negligible gravitation are modeled via Einstein's [[special theory of relativity]] (SR).
| |
| | |
| The electromagnetic, strong, and weak interactions associate with [[elementary particles]], whose behaviors are modeled in [[quantum mechanics]] (QM). For predictive success with QM's [[probabilistic]] outcomes, however, [[particle physics]] conventionally models QM [[Event (particle physics)|events]] across a field set to [[special theory of relativity|special relativity]], altogether relativistic [[quantum field theory]] (QFT).<ref>Meinard Kuhlmann, [http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=physicists-debate-whether-world-made-of-particles-fields-or-something-else "Physicists debate whether the world is made of particles or fields—or something else entirely"], ''Scientific American'', 24 Jul 2013.</ref> Force particles, called [[gauge boson|boson]]s—''force carriers'' or ''[[messenger particles]]'' of underlying fields—interact with matter particles, called [[fermions]]. [[Baryonic matter|Everyday matter]] is [[atom]]s, composed of three fermion types: [[quark|up-quarks and down-quarks]] constituting, as well as [[electrons]] orbiting, the atom's [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]]. Atoms interact, form [[molecule]]s, and manifest further properties through electromagnetic interactions among their electrons absorbing and emitting [[photons]], the electromagnetic field's force carrier, which if unimpeded traverse potentially infinite distance. Electromagnetism's QFT is [[quantum electrodynamics]] (QED).
| |
| | |
| The electromagnetic interaction was modeled with the weak interaction, whose force carriers are [[W and Z bosons]], traversing minuscule distance, in [[electroweak theory]] (EWT). Electroweak interaction would operate at such high temperatures as soon after the presumed [[Big Bang]], but, as the early universe cooled, [[symmetry breaking|split]] into electromagnetic and weak interactions. The strong interaction, whose force carrier is the [[gluon]], traversing minuscule distance among [[quark]]s, is modeled in [[quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD). EWT, QCD, and the [[Higgs mechanism]], whereby the [[Higgs field]] manifests [[Higgs particle|Higgs boson]]s that interact with some quantum particles and thereby endow those particles with mass, comprise [[particle physics]]' [[Standard Model]] (SM). Predictions are usually made using calculational approximation methods, although such [[perturbation theory (quantum mechanics)|perturbation theory]] is inadequate to model some experimental observations (for instance [[bound state]]s and [[soliton]]s). Still, physicists widely accept the Standard Model as science's most experimentally confirmed theory.
| |
| | |
| [[Beyond the Standard Model]], some [[theoretical physics|theorists]] work to unite the [[electroweak interaction|electroweak]] and [[strong interaction|strong]] interactions within a [[Grand Unified Theory]] (GUT). Some attempts at GUTs hypothesize "shadow" particles, such that every known [[fermion|matter particle]] associates with an undiscovered [[boson|force particle]], and vice versa, altogether [[supersymmetry]] (SUSY). Other theorists seek to [[quantum physics|quantize]] the gravitational field by modeling behavior of its hypothetical force carrier, the [[graviton]] and achieve [[quantum gravity]] (QG). One approach to QG is [[loop quantum gravity]] (LQG). Still other theorists seek both QG and GUT within one framework, reducing all four fundamental interactions to a [[Theory of Everything]] (ToE). The most prevalent aim at a ToE is [[string theory]], although to model [[fermions|matter particles]], it added [[supersymmetry|SUSY]] to [[bosons|force particles]]—and so, strictly speaking, became superstring theory. Multiple, seemingly disparate superstring theories were unified on a backbone, [[M theory]]. Theories beyond the Standard Model remain highly speculative, lacking great experimental support.
| |
| | |
| ==Overview of the fundamental Interaction==
| |
| [[Image:Particle overview.svg|thumb|400px|An overview of the various families of elementary and composite particles, and the theories describing their interactions. Fermions are on the left, and Bosons are on the right.]]
| |
| | |
| In the [[Model (abstract)|conceptual model]] of fundamental interactions, [[matter]] consists of [[fermion]]s, which carry [[Physical property|properties]] called [[charge (physics)|charge]]s and [[spin (physics)|spin]] ±{{Frac|1|2}} (intrinsic [[angular momentum]] ±{{frac|''ħ''|2}}, where ħ is the [[reduced Planck constant]]). They attract or repel each other by exchanging [[boson]]s.
| |
| | |
| The interaction of any pair of fermions in perturbation theory can then be modeled thus:
| |
| | |
| : Two fermions go in → ''interaction'' by boson exchange → Two changed fermions go out.
| |
| | |
| The exchange of bosons always carries [[energy]] and [[momentum]] between the fermions, thereby changing their speed and direction. The exchange may also transport a charge between the fermions, changing the charges of the fermions in the process (e.g., turn them from one type of fermion to another). Since bosons carry one unit of angular momentum, the fermion's spin direction will flip from +{{Frac|1|2}} to −{{Frac|1|2}} (or vice versa) during such an exchange (in units of the [[reduced Planck's constant]]).
| |
| | |
| Because an interaction results in fermions attracting and repelling each other, an older term for "interaction" is [[force]].
| |
| | |
| According to the present understanding, there are four fundamental interactions or forces: [[gravitation]], [[electromagnetism]], the [[weak interaction]], and the [[strong interaction]]. Their magnitude and behavior vary greatly, as described in the table below. Modern [[physics]] attempts to explain every observed [[natural phenomenon|physical phenomenon]] by these fundamental interactions. Moreover, reducing the number of different interaction types is seen as desirable. Two cases in point are the [[unified field theory|unification]] of:
| |
| *[[Electric force|Electric]] and [[magnetic force]] into electromagnetism;
| |
| *The [[electromagnetic interaction]] and the weak interaction into the [[electroweak interaction]]; see below.
| |
| | |
| Both magnitude ("relative strength") and "range", as given in the table, are meaningful only within a rather complex theoretical framework. It should also be noted that the table below lists properties of a conceptual scheme that is still the subject of ongoing research.
| |
| <center>
| |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Interaction !! Current theory !! Mediators !! Relative strength<ref>Approximate. See [[Coupling constant]] for more exact strengths, depending on the particles and energies involved.</ref> !! Long-distance behavior !! Range (m)
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Strong interaction|Strong]] || [[Quantum chromodynamics]] <br />(QCD) || [[gluon]]s || 10<sup>38</sup> || <math>{1}</math><br /> ([[#Strong interaction|see discussion below]]) || 10<sup>−15</sup>
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Electromagnetic interaction|Electromagnetic]] || [[Quantum electrodynamics]] <br />(QED) || [[photon]]s || 10<sup>36</sup> || <math>\frac{1}{r^2}</math> || ∞
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Weak interaction|Weak]] || [[Electroweak interaction|Electroweak Theory]] (EWT) || [[W and Z bosons]] || 10<sup>25</sup> || <math> \frac{1}{r} \ e^{-m_{W,Z} \ r}</math> || 10<sup>−18</sup>
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Gravitation]] || [[General Relativity]]<br />(GR) || [[graviton]]s (hypothetical) || 1 || <math>\frac{1}{r^2}</math> || ∞
| |
| |}</center>
| |
| | |
| The modern (perturbative) [[quantum mechanics|quantum mechanical]] view of the fundamental forces other than gravity is that particles of matter ([[fermions]]) do not directly interact with each other, but rather carry a charge, and exchange [[virtual particles]] ([[gauge bosons]]), which are the interaction carriers or force mediators. For example, [[photons]] mediate the interaction of [[electric charges]], and [[gluons]] mediate the interaction of [[color charge]]s.
| |
| | |
| ==The interactions==
| |
| | |
| ===Gravitation===
| |
| {{Main|Gravitation}}
| |
| ''Gravitation'' is by far the weakest of the four interactions. The weakness of gravity can easily be demonstrated by suspending a pin using a simple [[magnet]] (such as a refrigerator magnet). The magnet is able to hold the pin against the gravitational pull of the entire Earth.
| |
| | |
| Yet gravitation is very important for macroscopic objects and over macroscopic distances for the following reasons. Gravitation:
| |
| *is the only interaction that acts on all particles having mass;
| |
| *has an infinite range, like electromagnetism but unlike strong and weak interaction;
| |
| *cannot be absorbed, transformed, or shielded against;
| |
| *always attracts and never repels.
| |
| | |
| Even though electromagnetism is far stronger than gravitation, electrostatic attraction is not relevant for large celestial bodies, such as planets, stars, and galaxies, simply because such bodies contain equal numbers of protons and electrons and so have a net electric charge of zero. Nothing "cancels" gravity, since it is only attractive, unlike electric forces which can be attractive or repulsive. On the other hand, all objects having mass are subject to the gravitational force, which only attracts. Therefore, only gravitation matters on the large scale structure of the universe.
| |
| | |
| The long range of gravitation makes it responsible for such large-scale phenomena as the structure of galaxies, [[black hole]]s, and the [[Universe#Big Bang model|expansion of the universe]]. Gravitation also explains astronomical phenomena on more modest scales, such as [[planet]]ary [[orbit]]s, as well as everyday experience: objects fall; heavy objects act as if they were glued to the ground; and animals can only jump so high.
| |
| | |
| Gravitation was the first interaction to be described mathematically. In ancient times, [[Aristotle]] hypothesized that objects of different masses fall at different rates. During the [[Scientific Revolution]], [[Galileo Galilei]] experimentally determined that this was not the case — neglecting the friction due to air resistance, and buoyancy forces if an atmosphere is present (e.g. the case of a dropped air filled balloon vs a water filled balloon) all objects accelerate toward the Earth at the same rate. [[Isaac Newton]]'s [[law of Universal Gravitation]] (1687) was a good approximation of the behaviour of gravitation. Our present-day understanding of gravitation stems from [[Albert Einstein]]'s [[General Theory of Relativity]] of 1915, a more accurate (especially for [[cosmology|cosmological]] masses and distances) description of gravitation in terms of the [[geometry]] of [[space-time]].
| |
| | |
| Merging general relativity and [[quantum mechanics]] (or [[quantum field theory]]) into a more general theory of [[quantum gravity]] is an area of active research. It is hypothesized that gravitation is mediated by a massless spin-2 particle called the [[graviton]].
| |
| | |
| Although general relativity has been experimentally confirmed (at least, in the weak field or [[Post-Newtonian]] case) on all but the smallest scales, there are rival theories of gravitation. Those taken seriously by the physics community all reduce to general relativity in some limit, and the focus of observational work is to establish limitations on what deviations from general relativity are possible.
| |
| | |
| ===Electroweak interaction===
| |
| {{Main|Electroweak interaction}}
| |
| [[Electromagnetism]] and [[weak interaction]] appear to be very different at everyday low energies. They can be modeled using two different theories. However, above unification energy, on the order of 100 [[GeV]], they would merge into a single electroweak force.
| |
| | |
| Electroweak theory is very important for modern [[cosmology]], particularly on how the [[universe]] evolved. This is because shortly after the [[Big Bang]], the temperature was approximately above 10<sup>15</sup> [[Kelvin|K]]. Electromagnetic force and weak force were merged into a combined electroweak force.
| |
| | |
| For contributions to the unification of the weak and electromagnetic interaction between [[particle physics|elementary particles]], [[Abdus Salam]], [[Sheldon Lee Glashow|Sheldon Glashow]] and [[Steven Weinberg]] were awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] in 1979.<ref>{{Citation|first=Sander |last=Bais |year=2005| title=The Equations. Icons of knowledge| isbn=0-674-01967-9}} p.84</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1979/|title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1979|publisher=The Nobel Foundation|accessdate=2008-12-16}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ====Electromagnetism====
| |
| {{Main|Electromagnetism}}
| |
| ''Electromagnetism'' is the force that acts between [[electric charge|electrically charged]] particles. This phenomenon includes the [[electrostatic force]] acting between charged particles at rest, and the combined effect of [[electric]] and [[magnetic]] forces acting between charged particles moving relative to each other.
| |
| | |
| Electromagnetism is infinite-ranged like gravity, but vastly stronger, and therefore describes a number of macroscopic phenomena of everyday experience such as [[friction]], [[rainbows]], [[lightning]], and all human-made devices using [[electric current]], such as [[television]], [[laser]]s, and [[computer]]s. Electromagnetism fundamentally determines all macroscopic, and many atomic level, properties of the [[chemical element]]s, including all [[chemical bond]]ing.
| |
| | |
| In a four kilogram (~1 gallon) jug of water there are
| |
| | |
| <center><math> 4000 \ \mbox{g}\,H_2 O \cdot \frac{1 \ \mbox{mol}\,H_2 O}{18 \ \mbox{g}\,H_2 O} \cdot \frac{10 \ \mbox{mol}\,e^{-}}{1 \ \mbox{mol}\,H_2 O} \cdot \frac{96,000 \ \mbox{C}\,}{1 \ \mbox{mol}\,e^{-}} = 2.1 \times 10^{8} C \ \, \ </math></center>
| |
| | |
| of total electron charge. Thus, if we place two such jugs a meter apart, the electrons in one of the jugs repel those in the other jug with a force of
| |
| | |
| <center><math> {1 \over 4\pi\varepsilon_0}\frac{(2.1 \times 10^{8} C)^2}{(1 m)^2} = 4.1 \times 10^{26} N.</math></center>
| |
| | |
| This is larger than what the planet [[Earth]] would weigh if weighed on another Earth. The [[atomic nucleus|atomic nuclei]] in one jug also repel those in the other with the same force. However, these repulsive forces are cancelled by the attraction of the electrons in jug A with the nuclei in jug B and the attraction of the nuclei in jug A with the electrons in jug B, resulting in no net force. Electromagnetic forces are tremendously stronger than gravity but cancel out so that for large bodies gravity dominates.
| |
| | |
| Electrical and magnetic phenomena have been observed since ancient times, but it was only in the 19th century that it was discovered that electricity and magnetism are two aspects of the same fundamental interaction. By 1864, [[Maxwell's equations]] had rigorously quantified this unified interaction. [[James Clerk Maxwell|Maxwell]]'s theory, restated using [[vector calculus]], is the classical theory of electromagnetism, suitable for most technological purposes.
| |
| | |
| The constant speed of light in a vacuum (customarily described with the letter "c") can be derived from Maxwell's equations, which are consistent with the theory of special relativity. [[Einstein]]'s 1905 theory of [[special relativity]], however, which flows from the observation that the [[speed of light]] is constant no matter how fast the observer is moving, showed that the theoretical result implied by Maxwell's equations has profound implications far beyond electro-magnetism on the very nature of time and space.
| |
| | |
| In other work that departed from classical electro-magnetism, Einstein also explained the [[photoelectric effect]] by hypothesizing that light was transmitted in [[quantum|quanta]], which we now call [[photon]]s. Starting around 1927, [[Paul Dirac]] combined [[quantum mechanics]] with the relativistic theory of [[electromagnetism]]. Further work in the 1940s, by [[Richard Feynman]], [[Freeman Dyson]], [[Julian Schwinger]], and [[Sin-Itiro Tomonaga]], completed this theory, which is now called [[quantum electrodynamics]], the revised theory of electromagnetism. Quantum electrodynamics and quantum mechanics provide a theoretical basis for electromagnetic behavior such as [[quantum tunneling]], in which a certain percentage of electrically charged particles move in ways that would be impossible under classical electromagnetic theory, that is necessary for everyday electronic devices such as [[transistors]] to function.
| |
| | |
| ====Weak interaction====
| |
| {{Main|Weak interaction}}
| |
| The ''weak interaction'' or ''weak nuclear force'' is responsible for some [[atomic nucleus|nuclear]] phenomena such as [[beta decay]]. Electromagnetism and the weak force are now understood to be two aspects of a unified [[electroweak interaction]] — this discovery was the first step toward the unified theory known as the [[Standard Model]]. In the theory of the electroweak interaction, the carriers of the weak force are the massive [[gauge boson]]s called the [[W and Z bosons]]. The weak interaction is the only known interaction which does not conserve [[parity (physics)|parity]]; it is left-right asymmetric. The weak interaction even violates [[CP-violation|CP]] symmetry but does conserve [[CPT symmetry|CPT]].
| |
| | |
| ===Strong interaction===
| |
| {{Main|Strong interaction}}
| |
| The ''strong interaction'', or ''strong nuclear force'', is the most complicated interaction, mainly because of the way it varies with distance. At distances greater than 10 [[femtometers]], the strong force is practically unobservable. Moreover, it holds only inside the [[atomic nucleus]].
| |
| | |
| After the nucleus was discovered in 1908, it was clear that a new force was needed to overcome the [[electrostatic]] repulsion, a manifestation of electromagnetism, of the positively charged [[proton]]s. Otherwise the nucleus could not exist. Moreover, the force had to be strong enough to squeeze the protons into a volume that is 10<sup>−15</sup> of that of the entire atom. From the short range of this force, [[Hideki Yukawa]] predicted that it was associated with a massive particle, whose mass is approximately 100 MeV.
| |
| | |
| The 1947 discovery of the [[pion]] ushered in the modern era of particle physics. Hundreds of [[hadrons]] were discovered from the 1940s to 1960s, and an [[Regge theory|extremely complicated theory]] of hadrons as strongly interacting particles was developed. Most notably:
| |
| *The pions were understood to be oscillations of [[Vacuum expectation value|vacuum condensates]];
| |
| *[[Jun John Sakurai]] proposed the rho and omega [[vector boson]]s to be [[Yang-Mills theory|force carrying particles]] for approximate symmetries of [[isospin]] and [[hypercharge]];
| |
| *[[Geoffrey Chew]], Edward K. Burdett and [[Steven Frautschi]] grouped the heavier hadrons into families that could be understood as vibrational and rotational excitations of [[string theory|strings]].
| |
| | |
| While each of these approaches offered deep insights, no approach led directly to a fundamental theory.
| |
| | |
| [[Murray Gell-Mann]] along with [[George Zweig]] first proposed fractionally charged quarks in 1961. Throughout the 1960s, different authors considered theories similar to the modern fundamental theory of [[quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics (QCD)]] as simple models for the interactions of [[quark]]s. The first to hypothesize the [[gluon]]s of QCD were [[Moo-Young Han]] and [[Yoichiro Nambu]], who introduced the [[quark color]] charge and hypothesized that it might be associated with a force-carrying field. At that time, however, it was difficult to see how such a model could permanently confine quarks. Han and Nambu also assigned each quark color an integer electrical charge, so that the quarks were fractionally charged only on average, and they did not expect the quarks in their model to be permanently confined.
| |
| | |
| In 1971, Murray Gell-Mann and [[Harald Fritzsch]] proposed that the Han/Nambu color gauge field was the correct theory of the short-distance interactions of fractionally charged quarks. A little later, [[David Gross]], [[Frank Wilczek]], and [[David Politzer]] discovered that this theory had the property of [[asymptotic freedom]], allowing them to make contact with [[deep inelastic scattering|experimental evidence]]. They concluded that QCD was the complete theory of the strong interactions, correct at all distance scales. The discovery of asymptotic freedom led most physicists to accept QCD, since it became clear that even the long-distance properties of the strong interactions could be consistent with experiment, if the quarks are permanently confined.
| |
| | |
| Assuming that quarks are confined, [[Mikhail Shifman]], [[Arkady Vainshtein]], and [[Valentine Zakharov]] were able to compute the properties of many low-lying hadrons directly from QCD, with only a few extra parameters to describe the vacuum. In 1980, [[Kenneth G. Wilson]] published computer calculations based on the first principles of QCD, establishing, to a level of confidence tantamount to certainty, that QCD will confine quarks. Since then, QCD has been the established theory of the strong interactions.
| |
| | |
| QCD is a theory of fractionally charged quarks interacting by means of 8 photon-like particles called gluons. The gluons interact with each other, not just with the quarks, and at long distances the lines of force collimate into strings. In this way, the mathematical theory of QCD not only explains how quarks interact over short distances, but also the string-like behavior, discovered by Chew and Frautschi, which they manifest over longer distances.
| |
| | |
| ===Beyond the Standard Model===
| |
| {{main|Physics beyond the Standard Model}}
| |
| Numerous theoretical efforts have been made to systematize the existing four fundamental interactions on the model of electro-weak unification.
| |
| | |
| Grand Unified Theories (GUTs) are proposals to show that all of the fundamental interactions, other than gravity, arise from a single interaction with symmetries that break down at low energy levels. GUTs predict relationships among constants of nature that are unrelated in the SM. GUTs also predict [[gauge coupling unification]] for the relative strengths of the electromagnetic, weak, and strong forces, a prediction verified at the [[LEP]] in 1991 for [[Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model|supersymmetric]] theories.
| |
| | |
| Theories of everything, which integrate GUTs with a quantum gravity theory face a greater barrier, because no quantum gravity theories, which include [[string theory]], [[loop quantum gravity]], and [[twistor theory]], have secured wide acceptance. Some theories look for a graviton to complete the Standard Model list of force carrying particles, while others, like loop quantum gravity, emphasize the possibility that time-space itself may have a quantum aspect to it.
| |
| | |
| Some theories [[beyond the Standard Model]] include a hypothetical [[fifth force]], and the search for such a force is an ongoing line of experimental research in physics. In [[supersymmetric]] theories, there are particles that acquire their masses only through supersymmetry breaking effects and these particles, known as [[Moduli (physics)|moduli]] can mediate new forces. Another reason to look for new forces is the recent discovery that the [[expansion of the universe]] is accelerating (also known as [[dark energy]]), giving rise to a need to explain a nonzero [[cosmological constant]], and possibly to other modifications of [[general relativity]]. Fifth forces have also been suggested to explain phenomena such as [[Charge parity|CP]] violations, [[dark matter]], and [[dark flow]].
| |
| | |
| ==See also==
| |
| {{Portal|Physics}}
| |
| * [[Standard Model]]
| |
| ** [[Strong interaction]]
| |
| ** [[Electroweak interaction]]
| |
| ** [[Weak interaction]]
| |
| ** [[Gravity]]
| |
| *** [[Quantum gravity]]
| |
| *** [[String Theory]]
| |
| *** [[Theory of Everything]]
| |
| | |
| * [[Grand Unified Theory]]
| |
| ** [[Gauge coupling unification]]
| |
| ** [[Unified Field Theory]]
| |
| | |
| * [[Quintessence (physics)|Quintessence]], a hypothesized [[fifth force]].
| |
| | |
| * ''People'': [[Isaac Newton]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]], [[Albert Einstein]], [[Richard Feynman]], [[Sheldon Glashow]], [[Abdus Salam]], [[Steven Weinberg]], [[Gerardus 't Hooft]], [[David Gross]], [[Edward Witten]], [[Howard Georgi]].
| |
| | |
| ==References==
| |
| ;Notes
| |
| {{reflist}}
| |
| | |
| ;Bibliography
| |
| :'''General''':
| |
| *{{Citation|author-link=Paul Davies|first=Paul |last=Davies|year=1986|title=The Forces of Nature|publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press}} 2nd ed.
| |
| *{{Citation|author-link=Richard Feynman|first=Richard |last=Feynman|year=1967|title=The Character of Physical Law|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=0-262-56003-8}}
| |
| *{{Citation|first=Bruce A.|last=Schumm|year=2004|title=Deep Down Things|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press}} While all interactions are discussed, discussion is especially thorough on the weak.
| |
| *{{Citation|author-link=Steven Weinberg|first=Steven |last=Weinberg|year=1993|title=The First Three Minutes: A Modern View of the Origin of the Universe|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=0-465-02437-8}}
| |
| *{{Citation|author-link=Steven Weinberg|first=Steven |last=Weinberg|year=1994|title=Dreams of a Final Theory|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=0-679-74408-8}}
| |
| :'''Texts''':
| |
| *{{Citation|first=T.|last=Padmanabhan|year=1998|title=After The First Three Minutes: The Story of Our Universe |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press|isbn=0-521-62972-1}}
| |
| *{{Citation|first=Donald H.|last=Perkins|year=2000|title=Introduction to High Energy Physics |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press|isbn=0-521-62196-8}}
| |
| *{{Cite journal |last=Riazuddin |first= |authorlink=Riazuddin (physicist) |coauthors= |title=Non-standard interactions |journal=NCP 5th Particle Physics Sypnoisis |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1–25 |publisher=Riazuddin, Head of High-Energy Theory Group at National Center for Physics |location=[[Islamabad]] |date=December 29, 2009 |url=http://www.ncp.edu.pk/docs/snwm/Riazuddin_Non_Standartd_Interaction.pdf |accessdate=March 19, 2011}}
| |
| | |
| {{Fundamental interactions}}
| |
| | |
| {{DEFAULTSORT:Fundamental Interaction}}
| |
| [[Category:Interaction]]
| |
| [[Category:Force]]
| |
| [[Category:Particle physics]]
| |
| | |
| {{Link GA|es}}
| |