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{{for|the 2007 action film|Body Armour (film)}}
{{expert-subject|Law Enforcement|ex2=Firearms|date=November 2009}}
[[File:US Navy 100714-M-6044V-029 Marine Corps Sgt. Krystal L. Marshall, left, communications detachment maintenance chief, and 1st Lt. Briana Carter, assistant operations officer of Combat Logistics Battalion 15.jpg|thumb|300px|[[United States Marine Corps|United States Marines]] in July 2010 assist a [[Sri Lankan Navy]] sailor in trying on a [[Modular Tactical Vest]].]]
 
'''Personal armour''' (also known as '''personal armor''' or '''body armour''') is the whole of protecting clothing, designed to absorb and/or deflect slashing, bludgeoning, and penetrating attacks. They were historically used to protect [[soldier]]s, whereas today, they are also used to protect various types of [[police]] (especially [[riot police]] in particular), private citizens, private [[security guard]]s or bodyguards. Two types exist: regular non-plated personal armor (used by the people mentioned above, except combat soldiers) and hard-plate reinforced personal armor, which is used by combat soldiers, police tactical units and hostage rescue teams.
 
==History==
[[File:Japanese warrior in armor. (10797305704).jpg|thumb|Japanese warrior in armor.]]
[[File:Mycenaean armour 1400BC.jpg|thumb|Greek [[Helladic period|Mycenaean]] armor, c. 1400 BC]]
 
Many factors have affected the development of personal armor throughout human history.  Significant factors in the development of armor include the economic and technological necessities of armor production.  For instance plate armor first appeared in Medieval Europe when water-powered [[trip hammer]]s made the formation of plates faster and cheaper.  Also modern militaries usually do not provide the best armor to their forces since doing so would be prohibitively costly. At times the development of armor has run parallel to the development of increasingly effective weaponry on the battlefield, with armorers seeking to create better protection without sacrificing mobility.
 
===Ancient===
[[File:Dong Son brozne armor 2.JPG|thumb|left|Bronze lamellae- Vietnam, 300 BC - 100 BC]]
The oldest known western armor is the [[Dendra panoply]], dating from the [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean Era]] around 1400 BC
[[Mail (armour)|Mail]], also referred to as chainmail, is made of interlocking iron rings, which may be riveted or welded shut. It is believed to have been invented by the [[Celt]]ic people in [[Eastern Europe]] about 500 BC.{{Citation needed|date=June 2007}} When these Celts moved West they took mail with them.  Most cultures who used mail used the Celtic word ''Byrnne'' or a variant, suggesting the Celts as the originators. <ref>{{Cite news|url= http://theringlord.com/images/NUVO%20FYI_Design.pdf|title= Ancient Celts generally get credit for being the first to weave metal rings into a sleek protective garment. Roman legions are said to have adopted chain mail from their adversaries.|accessdate=2012-05-07
|location=Vancouver|work=[[NUVO (magazine)]]|first=Amy Jo |last= Ehman}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite news|url= http://people.stfx.ca/mnewton/westernciv7celts.pdf|title= Celtic military technology was taken over by and incorporated into the Roman Army, particularly chain mail,the iron clad wheel, two-wheeled chariot, and “battlebowler” style of helmet.|accessdate=2012-05-07|location=Antigonish|work=StFX Humanities Colloquium Lecture|first=Michael |last= Newton}}</ref> <ref>[[Simon James (archaeologist)|Simon James]], ''The World of the Celts'' (London: Thames and Hudson, 1993) p. 75-9, 114 ISBN 978-0-500-27998-4</ref> The Romans widely adopted mail as the [[lorica hamata]], although they also made use of [[lorica segmentata]] and [[Lorica squamata]]. While no non-metallic armor survives, a linen laminate known as [[linothorax]] is repeatedly mentioned in ancient Greek sources.
 
In East Asian history laminated armor such as [[lamellar armour|lamellar]], and styles similar to the [[coat of plates]], and [[brigandine]] were commonly used. Later cuirasses and plates were also used. In pre-Qin dynasty times, leather armor was made out of rhinoceros. Chinese influence in Japan would result in the Japanese adopting Chinese styles, their [[Samurai|samurai armor]] being a result of this influence.
 
===Middle Ages===
[[File:Turkey.Bodrum073.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Turkish people|Turkish]] [[plated mail]].]]
In [[European history]], well-known armor types include  the [[mail (armour)|mail]] [[hauberk]] of the early medieval age, and the full steel [[plate armour|plate harness]] worn by later [[Medieval]] and [[Renaissance]] [[knight]]s, and a few key components (breast and back plates) by heavy cavalry in several European countries until the first year of World War I (1914–15).
 
====Plate====
{{Main|Plate armour}}
{{Further2|[[components of medieval armour]]}}
 
Gradually, small additional plates or discs of iron were added to the mail to protect vulnerable areas.  By the late 13th century, the knees were capped, and two circular discs, called [[besagew]]s were fitted to protect the underarms. A variety of methods for improving the protection provided by mail were used as armorers seemingly experimented.{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}} Hardened leather and [[splint armour|splinted]] construction were used for arm and leg pieces. The [[coat of plates]] was developed, an armor made of large plates sewn inside a textile or leather coat.
 
[[File:Suits of armour for riders Berlin museum.jpg|thumb|left|Renaissance/Early Modern suits of armor appropriate for heavy cavalry]]
Early plate in Italy, and elsewhere in the 13th–15th century were made of iron. Iron armor could be [[Carburizing|carburized]] or  [[Case hardening|case hardened]] to give a surface of harder steel.<ref>Williams, pp.740–741.</ref> Plate armor became cheaper than mail by the 15th century as it required much less labor and labor had become much more expensive after the [[Black Death]], though it did require larger furnaces to produce larger blooms.  Mail continued to be used to protect those joints which could not be adequately protected by plate, such as the armpit, crook of the elbow and groin. Another advantage of plate was that a lance rest could be fitted to the breast plate.<ref>Williams, p.55</ref>
 
The small skull cap evolved into a bigger true helmet, the [[bascinet]], as it was lengthened downward to protect the back of the neck and the sides of the head.  Additionally, several new forms of fully enclosed helmets were introduced in the late 14th century to replace the [[great helm]], such as the [[sallet]] and [[barbute]] and later the [[armet]] and [[close helm]].
 
Probably the most recognized style of armor in the world became the [[plate armour|plate armor]] associated with the [[knight]]s of the European [[Late Middle Ages]], but continuing to the early 17th century [[Age of Enlightenment]] in all European countries.
 
By about 1400 the full harness of plate armor had been developed in armories of Lombardy<ref>Williams, p.53</ref> Heavy cavalry dominated the battlefield for centuries in part because of their armor.
 
In the early 15th century, small "[[hand cannon]]" first began to be used, in the [[Hussite Wars]], in combination with [[Wagenburg]] tactics, allowing infantry to defeat armored knights on the battlefield. At the same time [[crossbow]]s were made more powerful to pierce armor, and the development of the Swiss [[Pike square]] formation also created substantial problems for heavy cavalry. Rather than dooming the use of body armor, the threat of small firearms intensified the use and further refinement of plate armor. There was a 150 year period in which better and more metallurgically advanced steel armor was being used, precisely because of the danger posed by the gun. Hence, guns and cavalry in plate armor were "threat and remedy" together on the battlefield for almost 400 years. By the 15th century Italian armor plates were almost always made of steel.<ref>Williams, p.66</ref> In Southern Germany armorers began to harden their steel armor only in the late 15th century. They would continue to harden their steel for the next century because they [[quench]]ed and [[tempering (metallurgy)|tempered]] their product which allowed for the [[fire-gilding]] to be combined with tempering.<ref>Williams, p.331</ref>
 
The quality of the metal used in armor deteriorated as armies became bigger and armor was made thicker, necessitating breeding of larger cavalry horses. If during the 14–15th centuries armor seldom weighed more than 15&nbsp;kg, then by the late 16th century it weighed 25&nbsp;kg.<ref>Williams, p.916</ref> The increasing weight and thickness of late-16th-century armor therefore gave substantial resistance.
 
In the early years of pistol and [[arquebuses]], firearms were relatively low in velocity.  The full suits of armor, or breast plates actually stopped bullets fired from a modest distance. The front breast plates were, in fact, commonly shot as a test. The impact point would often be encircled with engraving to point it out. This was called the "proof". Armor often also bore an insignia of the maker, especially if it was of good quality.  Crossbow bolts, if still used, would seldom penetrate good plate, nor would any bullet unless fired from close range.
 
In effect, rather than making plate armor obsolete, the use of firearms stimulated the development of plate armor into its later stages. For most of that period, it allowed horsemen to fight while being the targets of defending arquebuseers without being easily killed. Full suits of armor were actually worn by generals and princely commanders right up to the second decade of the 18th century. While heavy, it permitted mounted commanders to survey a battlefield while providing safety from musket fire.
 
====Horse armor====
The horse was afforded protection from lances and infantry weapons by steel plate [[barding]].  This gave the horse protection and enhanced the visual impression of a mounted knight.  Late in the era, elaborate barding was used in parade armor.
 
===Gunpowder era===
As gunpowder weapons improved, it became cheaper and more effective to have groups of unarmored men with early guns than to have expensive knights, which caused armor to be largely discarded. Cavalry units continued to use armor for longer. Example include the German [[Reiter]], Polish heavy [[hussars]] and the back and breast worn by heavy cavalry units during the Napoleonic wars.
 
===Anachronistic use===
{{unreferenced section|date=December 2011}}
[[File:Ministry of Information First World War Official Collection Q30161.jpg|thumb|World War I personal armour, including steel cap, steel plate vest, steel gauntlet/dagger and French splinter goggles.]]
Metal armor remained in limited use long after its general obsolescence. Soldiers in the [[American Civil War]] (1861-1865) bought iron and steel vests from peddlers (both sides had considered but rejected it for standard issue). The effectiveness of the vests varied widely—some successfully deflected bullets and saved lives but others were poorly made and resulted in tragedy for the soldiers. In any case the vests were abandoned by many soldiers due to their weight on long marches as well as the stigma they got for being cowards from their fellow troops.
 
At the start of [[World War I]] in 1914, thousands of the French [[Cuirassier]]s rode out to engage the German Cavalry who likewise used helmets and armor. By that period, the shiny armor plate was covered in dark paint and a canvas wrap covered their elaborate Napoleonic-style helmets. Their armor was meant to protect only against [[sabre|saber]]s and light [[lance]]s. The cavalry had to beware of high velocity [[rifle]]s and [[machine gun]]s like the foot soldiers, who at least had a [[trench]] to protect them.
 
==Modern armor==
{{See also|Battledress}}
Soldiers use metal or ceramic plates in their [[battledress]], providing additional protection from [[rifle]] rounds. Metallic components or tightly-woven fiber layers can give soft armor resistance to stab and slash attacks from a [[knife]]. [[Mail (armour)|Mail]] armor continues to be used as protection against stab/slash attacks.
 
===Fibers===
[[Kevlar]] is well known as a component of some [[Ballistic vest|bullet resistant vest]]s and [[Ballistic face mask|bullet resistant face mask]]s. The [[Personnel Armor System for Ground Troops|PASGT helmet and vest]] used by [[United States]] military forces since the early 1980s both have Kevlar as a key component, as do their replacements. Other military uses include bullet resistant facemasks used by sentries. Civilian applications include Kevlar reinforced clothing for motorcycle riders to protect against abrasion injuries. [[Kevlar]] in non-woven long strand form is used inside an outer protective cover to form chaps that loggers use while operating a chainsaw. If the moving chain contacts and tears through the outer cover, the long fibers of Kevlar tangle, clog, and stop the chain from moving as they get drawn into the workings of the drive mechanism of the saw. Kevlar is used also in Emergency Service's protection gear if it involves high heat (e.g., tackling a fire), and Kevlar such as vests for police officers, security, and [[SWAT]]. The latest Kevlar material that DuPont has developed is Kevlar XP. In comparison with 'normal' Kevlar, Kevlar XP is more light-weight and more comfortable to wear, as it is quilt stitch is not required for the ballistic package.
 
Another fiber used to manufacture a bullet resistant vest is [[Dyneema]]. Originated in the Netherlands, Dyneema has an extremely high strength-to-weight ratio (a 1-mm-diameter rope of Dyneema can bear up to a 240-kg load), is light enough that it can float on water, and has high energy absorption characteristics. Dyneema is a polyethylene fiber.
 
==Protected areas==
{{Main|List of personal protective equipment by body area}}
 
===Shield===
[[File:Police officer in riot gear.jpg|thumb|upright|An American [[police officer]] in October 2002 wears a helmet while equipped with a [[riot shield]].]]
A [[shield]] is held in the hand or arm. Its purpose is to intercept attacks, either by stopping projectiles such as arrows or by glancing a blow to the side of the shield-user. Shields are also used offensively as a bludgeoning weapon. Shields vary greatly in size, ranging from large shields that protect the user's entire body to small shields that are mostly for use in hand-to-hand combat. Shields also vary a great deal in thickness; whereas some shields were made of thick wooden planking, to protect soldiers from spears and crossbow bolts, other shields were thinner and designed mainly for glancing blows away (such as a sword blow). In prehistory, shields were made of wood, animal hide, or wicker. In antiquity and in the Middle Ages, shields were used by foot soldiers and mounted soldiers. Even after the invention of gunpowder and firearms, shields continued to be used. In the 18th century, Scottish clans continued to use small shields, and in the 19th century, some non-industrialized peoples continued to use shields. In the 20th and 21st century, shields are used by military and police units that specialize in anti-terrorist action, hostage rescue, and siege-breaching.
 
===Head===
 
A [[combat helmet]] is among the oldest forms of [[personal protective equipment]], and is known to have been worn by the [[ancient Assyrians|Assyrians]] around 900&nbsp;BC, followed by the [[ancient Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], throughout the [[Middle Ages]], and up to the end of the 17th century by many combatants.<ref name=autogenerated1>http://www.nps.gov/archive/colo/Jthanout/HisArmur.html</ref> Their materials and construction became more advanced as weapons became more and more powerful. Initially constructed from [[leather]] and [[brass]], and then [[bronze]] and [[iron]] during the [[Bronze Age|Bronze]] and [[Iron Age|Iron]] Ages, they soon came to be made entirely from forged [[steel]] in many societies after about 950&nbsp;AD.<ref>[http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/weaponswarfare/g/galea.htm Galea - About the Galea<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> At that time, they were purely military equipment, protecting the head from cutting blows with [[sword]]s, flying [[arrow]]s, and low-velocity [[musket]]ry. Many medieval helmets rested on the shoulders and prevented the wearer from turning his or her head, greatly restricting mobility. During the 18th and 19th centuries, helmets were not widely used in warfare, instead many armies used non-armored hats that offered no protection against blade or bullet. The arrival of World War I, with its trench warfare and wide use of artillery, led to mass adoption of metal helmets once again, this time with a shape that offered mobility, a low profile, and compatibility with gas masks. Today's militaries often use high-quality helmets made of ballistic materials such as [[Kevlar]] and [[Aramid]], which have excellent bullet and fragmentation stopping power. Some helmets also have good non-ballistic protective qualities, though many do not.<ref>[http://www.olive-drab.com/od_soldiers_gear_kevlar_helmet.php Kevlar Pasgt Helmet<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The two most popular ballistic helmet models are the PASGT and the MICH. The [[Modular Integrated Communications Helmet]] (MICH) type helmet has a slightly smaller coverage at the sides which allows tactical headsets and other communication equipment. The MICH model has standard pad suspension and four-point chinstrap. The Personal Armor System for Ground Troops (PASGT) helmet has been in use since 1983 and has slowly been replaced by the MICH helmet.<ref>[http://www.engardebodyarmor.com/hardarmor.htm MICH helmet]</ref>
 
A [[ballistic face mask]] is designed to protect the wearer from ballistic threats. Ballistic face masks are usually made of kevlar or other bullet-resistant materials and the inside of the mask may be padded for shock absorption, depending on the design. Due to weight restrictions, protection levels range only up to [[National Institute of Justice|NIJ]] Level IIIA.
 
===Torso===
{{Main|Cuirass}}
[[File:US Navy 071211-N-9623R-010 Seabees attached to Naval Mobile Construction Battalion (NMCB) 17's Convoy Security Element (CSE) stand ready to defend. The CSE team is tasked with the safe movement of convoys to and from their miss.jpg|thumb|[[United States Navy]] sailors in December 2007 wearing [[Lightweight Helmet]]s and [[Modular Tactical Vest]]s equipped with neck and groin armor, while participating in Operation Bearing Duel at [[Fort Hunter Liggett|Fort Hunter Liggett, California]].]]
 
A [[ballistic vest]] helps absorb the impact from [[firearm]]-fired [[projectile]]s and [[Fragmentation (weaponry)|shrapnel]] from explosions, and is worn on the [[torso]]. Soft vests are made from many layers of woven or laminated fibers and can be capable of protecting the wearer from small caliber [[handgun]] and [[shotgun]] projectiles, and small fragments from explosives such as [[hand grenade]]s.  
 
Metal or ceramic plates can be used with a soft vest, providing additional protection from [[rifle]] rounds, and metallic components or tightly-woven fiber layers can give soft armor resistance to stab and slash attacks from a [[knife]]. Soft vests are commonly worn by [[police]] forces, private citizens and private [[security guard]]s or [[bodyguard]]s, whereas hard-plate reinforced vests are mainly worn by combat soldiers, police tactical units and hostage rescue teams.
 
A modern equivalent may combine a ballistic vest with other items of protective clothing, such as a [[combat helmet]]. Vests intended for police and military use may also include ballistic shoulder and side protection armor components, and explosive ordnance disposal technicians wear heavy armor and helmets with face visors and spine protection.
 
===Limbs===
Medieval armor often offered protection for all of the limbs, including metal boots for the lower legs, gauntlets for the hands and wrists, and greaves for the legs. Today, protection of [[limb (anatomy)|limbs]] from bombs is provided by a [[bombsuit]]. Most modern soldiers sacrifice limb protection for mobility, since armor thick enough to stop bullets would greatly inhibit movement of the arms and legs.
 
==Performance standards==
Due to the various different types of projectile, it is often inaccurate to refer to a particular product as "[[Bulletproofing|bulletproof]]" because this implies that it will protect against any and all projectiles. Instead, the term '''bullet resistant''' is generally preferred.
 
The standards are regional. Around the world ammunition varies and as a result the armor testing must reflect the threats found locally. According to statistics from the National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial Fund, a law enforcement officer’s job is extremely dangerous with one officer being killed every 53 hours in the line of duty.  Even more astounding is that this number is on the rise. In 2011, 173 officers were killed, with 68 of them being killed due to a gun-related incident.<ref>[http://www.bodyarmornews.com/how-to-increase-the-wear-rate-of-bulletproof-vests BodyArmorNews.com]</ref>  As a result each law enforcement agency or para-military organizations will have their own standard for armor performance if only to ensure that their armor protects them from their own weapon. While many standards exist a few standards are widely used as models. The US [[National Institute of Justice]] ballistic and stab documents are examples of broadly accepted standards. Since the time that NIJ started testing, the lives of more than 3,000 officers were saved.<ref>[http://www.engardebodyarmor.com/NIJ-body-armor-standard.htm NIJ Standard]</ref> In addition to the NIJ, the United Kingdom's Home Office Scientific Development Branch (HOSDB—formerly the Police Scientific Development Branch (PSDB)) standards are also used by a number of other countries and organizations.  These "model" standards are usually adapted by other countries by incorporation of the basic test methodologies with modification of the bullets that are required for test.  NIJ Standard-0101.06 has specific performance [[standardization|standards]] for bullet resistant vests used by law enforcement. This rates vests on the following scale against penetration and also blunt trauma protection (deformation):<ref name="NIJ">{{cite web |url=http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/223054.pdf |title=Ballistic Resistance of NIJ Standard-0101.06 |date=July 2008 |work=NIJ Standards |publisher=[[United States Department of Justice]] |format=[[Portable Document Format|PDF]] |accessdate=2008-11-13}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
!Armor Level <small>(Higher is better)</small>
!Protection
|-
|'''Type I'''<br />([[.22 Long Rifle|.22 LR]]; [[.380 ACP]])
|This armor would protect against:
* 2.6 [[gram|g]] (40 [[grain (measure)|gr]]) [[.22 Long Rifle]] Lead Round Nose (LR LRN) bullets at a velocity of 329&nbsp;m/s (1080&nbsp;ft/s ± 30&nbsp;ft/s); and
* 6.2 g (95 gr) [[.380 ACP]] Full Metal Jacketed Round Nose (FMJ RN) bullets at a velocity of 322&nbsp;m/s (1055&nbsp;ft/s ± 30&nbsp;ft/s).
It is no longer part of the standard.
|-
|'''Type IIA'''<br />([[9×19mm Parabellum|9 mm]]; [[.40 S&W]]; [[.45 ACP]])
|New armor protects against:
* 8 g (124 gr) [[9×19mm Parabellum]] Full Metal Jacketed Round Nose (FMJ RN) bullets at a velocity of 373&nbsp;m/s ± 9.1&nbsp;m/s (1225&nbsp;ft/s ± 30&nbsp;ft/s);
* 11.7 g (180 gr) [[.40 S&W]] Full Metal Jacketed (FMJ) bullets at a velocity of 352&nbsp;m/s ± 9.1&nbsp;m/s (1155&nbsp;ft/s ± 30&nbsp;ft/s); and
* 14.9 g (230 gr) [[.45 ACP]] Full Metal Jacketed (FMJ) bullets at a velocity of 275&nbsp;m/s ± 9.1&nbsp;m/s (900&nbsp;ft/s ± 30&nbsp;ft/s).
Conditioned armor protects against:
* 8 g (124 gr) 9&nbsp;mm FMJ RN bullets at a velocity of 355&nbsp;m/s ± 9.1&nbsp;m/s (1165&nbsp;ft/s ± 30&nbsp;ft/s);
* 11.7 g (180 gr) .40 S&W FMJ bullets at a velocity of 325&nbsp;m/s ± 9.1&nbsp;m/s (1065&nbsp;ft/s ± 30&nbsp;ft/s); and
* 14.9 g (230 gr) .45 ACP Full Metal Jacketed (FMJ) bullets at a velocity of 259&nbsp;m/s ± 9.1&nbsp;m/s (850&nbsp;ft/s ± 30&nbsp;ft/s).
It also provides protection against the threats mentioned in [Type I].
|-ƒ
|'''Type II'''<br />(9&nbsp;mm; [[.357 Magnum]])
|New armor protects against:
* 8 g (124 gr) 9&nbsp;mm FMJ RN bullets at a velocity of 398&nbsp;m/s ± 9.1&nbsp;m/s (1305&nbsp;ft/s ± 30&nbsp;ft/s); and
* 10.2 g (158 gr) .357 Magnum Jacketed Soft Point bullets at a velocity of 436&nbsp;m/s ± 9.1&nbsp;m/s (1430&nbsp;ft/s ± 30&nbsp;ft/s).
Conditioned armor protects against:
* 8 g (124 gr) 9&nbsp;mm FMJ RN bullets at a velocity of 379&nbsp;m/s ±9.1&nbsp;m/s (1245&nbsp;ft/s ± 30&nbsp;ft/s); and
* 10.2 g (158 gr) .357 Magnum Jacketed Soft Point bullets at a velocity of 408&nbsp;m/s ±9.1&nbsp;m/s (1340&nbsp;ft/s ± 30&nbsp;ft/s).
It also provides protection against the threats mentioned in [Types I and IIA].
|-
|'''Type IIIA'''<br />([[.357 SIG]]; [[.44 Magnum]])
|New armor protects against:
* 8.1 g (125 gr) [[.357 SIG]] FMJ Flat Nose (FN) bullets at a velocity of 448&nbsp;m/s ± 9.1&nbsp;m/s (1470&nbsp;ft/s ± 30&nbsp;ft/s); and
* 15.6 g (240 gr) .44 Magnum Semi Jacketed [[Hollow-point bullet|Hollow Point]] (SJHP) bullets at a velocity of 436&nbsp;m/s (1430&nbsp;ft/s ± 30&nbsp;ft/s).
Conditioned armor protects against:
* 8.1 g (125 gr) .357 SIG FMJ Flat Nose (FN) bullets at a velocity of 430&nbsp;m/s ± 9.1&nbsp;m/s (1410&nbsp;ft/s ± 30&nbsp;ft/s); and
* 15.6 g (240 gr) [[.44 Magnum]] Semi Jacketed [[Hollow-point bullet|Hollow Point]] (SJHP) bullets at a velocity of 408&nbsp;m/s ± 9.1&nbsp;m/s (1340&nbsp;ft/s ± 30&nbsp;ft/s).
It also provides protection against most handgun threats, as well as the threats mentioned in [Types I, IIA, and II].
|-
|'''Type III'''<br />(Rifles)
|Conditioned armor protects against:
* 9.6 g (148 gr) [[7.62×51mm NATO]] [[7.62×51mm NATO#Military_cartridge_types|M80 ball]] bullets at a velocity of 847&nbsp;m/s ± 9.1&nbsp;m/s (2780&nbsp;ft/s ± 30&nbsp;ft/s).
It also provides protection against the threats mentioned in [Types I, IIA, II, and IIIA].
|-
|'''Type IV'''<br />(Armor Piercing Rifle)
|Conditioned armor protects against:
* 10.8 g (166 gr) [[.30-06 Springfield]] [[.30-06 Springfield#U.S. military cartridge types|M2]] armor-piercing (AP) bullets at a velocity of 878&nbsp;m/s ± 9.1&nbsp;m/s (2880&nbsp;ft/s ± 30&nbsp;ft/s).
It also provides at least single hit protection against the threats mentioned in [Types I, IIA, II, IIIA, and III].
|}
In addition to the NIJ and HOSDB standards, other important standards include: the [[Law enforcement in Germany|German Police]]'s Technische Richtlinie (TR) Ballistische Schutzwesten,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pfa.nrw.de/PTI_Internet/pti-intern.dhpol.local/WG/Regelungen/Schutzweste/SchutzwesteTR_03-08_Revisionen-10-08_09-09.pdf.html |title=Technische Richtlinie (TR) Ballistische Schutzwesten |date=September 2009 |publisher=Polizeitechnisches Institut (PTI) der Deutschen Hochschule der Polizei (DHPol) |language=[[German language|German]] |accessdate=November 13, 2012}}</ref> Draft [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] prEN ISO 14876,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iso-standard.org/25202.html |title=pr EN ISO 14876-1-2002 |publisher=www.ISO-standard.org |accessdate=November 13, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iso-standard.org/25203.html |title=pr EN ISO 14876-2-2002 |publisher=www.ISO-standard.org |accessdate=November 13, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iso-standard.org/25204.html |title=pr EN ISO 14876-3-2002 |publisher=www.ISO-standard.org |accessdate=November 13, 2012}}</ref> and [[Underwriters Laboratories]] (UL Standard 752).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ulstandardsinfonet.ul.com/scopes/scopes.asp?fn=0752.html |title=Bullet-Resisting Equipment: UL 752: Scope |date=December 21, 2006 |publisher=[[Underwriters Laboratories]] |accessdate=November 13, 2012}}</ref>
 
Textile armor is tested for both penetration resistance by bullets and for the impact energy transmitted to the wearer. The "backface signature" or transmitted impact energy is measured by shooting armor mounted in front of a backing material, typically oil-based [[modelling clay]]. The clay is used at a controlled temperature and verified for impact flow before testing. After the armor is impacted with the test bullet the vest is removed from the clay and the depth of the indentation in the clay is measured.<ref name="NIJ" />
 
The backface signature allowed by different test standards can be difficult to compare. Both the clay materials and the bullets used for the test are not common. In general the British, German and other European standards allow 20–25&nbsp;mm of backface signature, while the US-NIJ standards allow for 44&nbsp;mm, which can potentially cause internal injury.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2007.02.028 |title=Injuries to law enforcement officers: The backface signature injury |journal=Forensic Science International |volume=174 |issue=1 |pages=6–11 |year=2008 |issn=0379-0738 |first=M |last=Wilhelm |coauthors=Bir, C |url=http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=19964046 |pmid=17434273}}</ref> The allowable backface signature for this has been controversial from its introduction in the first NIJ test standard and the debate as to the relative importance of penetration-resistance vs. backface signature continues in the medical and testing communities. 
 
In general a vest's textile material temporarily degrades when wet.  Neutral water at room temp does not affect para-aramid or [[Ultra high molecular weight polyethylene|UHMWPE]] but acidic, basic and some other solutions can permanently reduce para-aramid fiber tensile strength.<ref>Kevlar, Twaron, Dyneema, Spectra technical data</ref> (As a result of this, the major test standards call for wet testing of textile armor.<ref>NIJ, HOSDB, US-Army and [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] ballistic test methods</ref>)  Mechanisms for this wet loss of performance are not known. Vests that will be tested after ISO-type water immersion tend to have heat-sealed enclosures and those that are tested under NIJ-type water spray methods tend to have water-resistant enclosures.
 
From 2003 to 2005, a large study of the environmental degradation of Zylon armor was undertaken by the US-NIJ.  This concluded that water, long-term use, and temperature exposure significantly affect tensile strength and the ballistic performance of PBO or Zylon fiber. This NIJ study on vests returned from the field demonstrated that environmental effects on Zylon resulted in ballistic failures under standard test conditions.<ref>"Third Status Report to the Attorney General on Safety Initiative Testing and Activities"</ref>
 
===Ballistic testing V50 and V0===
 
Measuring the ballistic performance of armor is based on determining the [[kinetic energy]] of a bullet at impact. Because the energy of a bullet is a key factor in its penetrating capacity, velocity is used as the primary independent variable in ballistic testing. For most users the key measurement is the velocity at which no bullets will penetrate the armor. Measuring this zero penetration velocity (V0) must take into account variability in armor performance and test variability. Ballistic testing has a number of sources of variability: the armor, test backing materials, bullet, casing, powder, primer and the gun barrel, to name a few.
 
Variability reduces the predictive power of a determination of V0. If for example, the V0 of an armor design is measured to be {{convert|1600|ft/s|m/s|abbr=on}} with a 9&nbsp;mm FMJ bullet based on 30 shots, the test is only an estimate of the real V0 of this armor. The problem is variability. If the V0 is tested again with a second group of 30 shots on the same vest design, the result will not be identical.
 
Only a single low velocity penetrating shot is required to reduce the V0 value. The more shots made the lower the V0 will go. In terms of statistics, the zero penetration velocity is the tail end of the distribution curve. If the variability is known and the standard deviation can be calculated, one can rigorously set the V0 at a confidence interval.  Test Standards now define how many shots must be used to estimate a V0 for the armor certification. This procedure defines a confidence interval of an estimate of V0. (See "NIJ and HOSDB test methods".)
 
V0 is difficult to measure, so a second concept has been developed in ballistic testing called V50. This is the velocity at which 50 percent of the shots go through and 50 percent are stopped by the armor. US military standards<ref>ARMY MIL-STD-662F V50 BALLISTIC TEST FOR ARMOR</ref> define a commonly used procedure for this test. The goal is to get three shots that penetrate that are slower than a second group of three shots that are stopped by the armor. These three high stops and three low penetrations can then be used to calculate a V50 velocity.
 
In practice this measurement of V50 requires 1–2 vest panels and 10–20 shots. A very useful concept in armor testing is the offset velocity between the V0 and V50. If this offset has been measured for an armor design, then V50 data can be used to measure and estimate changes in V0. For vest manufacturing, field evaluation and life testing both V0 and V50 are used. However, as a result of the simplicity of making V50 measurements, this method is more important for control of armor after certification.
 
==== Cunniff analysis ====
Using dimensionless analysis, Cuniff<ref>{{Citation | last = Cunniff | first = P. M. |  title = Dimensionless parameters for optimization of textile-based body armor systems.| journal = 18th International Symposium on Ballistics| pages = 1303–1310  | year = 1999 |}}.</ref> arrived at a relation connecting the V<sub>50</sub> and the system parameters for textile-based body armors. Under the assumption that the energy of impact is dissipated in breaking the yarn, it was shown that
:<math> V_{50} = (U^* )^{1/3} f\left(\frac{A_d}{A_p}\right).</math>
Here,  
:<math>U^* = \frac{\sigma\epsilon}{2\rho}\sqrt\frac{E}{\rho}</math>
:<math>\sigma,\epsilon,\rho,E</math> are the failure stress, failure strain, density and elastic modulus of the yarn
:<math>A_d</math> is the mass per unit area of the armor
:<math>A_p</math> is the mass per unit area of the projectile
 
===Military testing===
 
After the [[Vietnam War]], military planners developed a concept of “Casualty Reduction”.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dusablon |first=L V |title=The Casualty Reduction Analysis Model for Personnel Armor Systems |publisher=U.S. Army Natick Research, Development and Engineering Center |date=December 1972}}</ref>  The large body of casualty data made clear that in a combat situation, fragments, not bullets, were the greatest threat to soldiers. After [[World War II|WWII]] vests were being developed and fragment testing was in its early stages.<ref>Design Information for Construction of Light Personnel Armor. Authors: Willard R. Beye 1950 MIDWEST RESEARCH INST KANSAS CITY MO</ref> Artillery shells, mortar shells, aerial bombs, grenades, and antipersonnel mines are all fragmentation devices. They all contain a steel casing that is designed to burst into small steel fragments or shrapnel, when their explosive core detonates. After considerable effort measuring fragment size distribution from various [[NATO]] and [[Soviet Bloc]] munitions, a fragment test was developed. Fragment simulators were designed and the most common shape is a Right Circular Cylinder or RCC simulator. This shape has a length equal to its diameter. These RCC Fragment Simulation Projectiles (FSPs) are tested as a group. The test series most often includes 2 grain (0.13&nbsp;g), 4 grain (0.263&nbsp;g), 16 grain (1.0&nbsp;g), and 64 grain (4.2&nbsp;g) mass RCC FSP testing. The 2-4-16-64 series is based on the measured fragment size distributions. 
The second part of “Casualty Reduction” strategy is a study of velocity distributions of fragments from munitions.<ref>Johnson, W., Collins, C., and Kindred, F., A Mathematical Model for Predicting Residual Velocities of Fragments After Perforating Helmets, Ballistic Research Laboratories Technical Note no. 1705,
October 1968</ref> Warhead explosives have blast speeds of {{convert|20000|ft/s|m/s|abbr=on}} to {{convert|30000|ft/s|m/s|abbr=on}}. As a result they are capable of ejecting fragments at very high speeds of over 1000&nbsp;m/s (3330&nbsp;ft/s), implying very high energy (where the energy of a fragment is ½ mass × velocity<sup>2</sup>, neglecting rotational energy). The military engineering data showed that like the fragment size the fragment velocities had characteristic distributions. It is possible to segment the fragment output from a warhead into velocity groups. For example 95% of all fragments from a bomb blast under {{convert|4|gr}} have a velocity of {{convert|3000|ft/s|m/s|abbr=on}} or less. This established a set of goals for military ballistic vest design.
 
The random nature of fragmentation required the military vest specification to trade off mass vs. ballistic-benefit. Hard vehicle armor is capable of stopping all fragments, but military personnel can only carry a limited amount of gear and equipment, so the weight of the vest is a limiting factor in vest fragment protection. The 2-4-16-64 grain series at limited velocity can be stopped by an all-textile vest of approximately 5.4&nbsp;kg/m<sup>2</sup> (1.1&nbsp;lb/ft<sup>2</sup>). In contrast to the design of vest for deformable lead bullets, fragments do not change shape; they are steel and can not be deformed by textile materials. The {{convert|2|gr|sing=on}} FSP (the smallest fragment projectile commonly used in testing) is about the size of a grain of rice; such small fast moving fragments can potentially slip through the vest, moving between yarns. As a result fabrics optimized for fragment protection are tightly woven, although these fabrics are not as effective at stopping lead bullets.
 
====In practice====
In December 2009, during the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|War in Afghanistan]], a British soldier deployed in southern [[Helmand Province]], survived a shot to the back during an operation to clear insurgents from a village, protected by the body armor kit he was wearing.
 
{{quote|(...) I was hit in the back by a single shot. It must have been from about 200–300 metres away. The round knocked me down in an instant, it felt like being hit by a sledge-hammer at full swing. I slammed into the dirt face down. (...) I was in agony, I certainly couldn't walk on my own (...) I think it was a [[7.62mm]] round. That's a high calibre bullet to be hit by, but it shows you that the body armour works. I wouldn't be sitting here now telling you this story, if I wasn't wearing one. Thank you to whoever designed the body armour. If I ever meet them, I'd like to buy them a pint.|Lance Sergeant Daniel Collins<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.military-world.net/Afghanistan/1573.html |title=Welsh Guard shot in the back is saved by his body armour |author=Army.mod.uk |date=June 10, 2009 |publisher=Military News |accessdate=November 13, 2012 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20090615063422/http://www.army.mod.uk/news/15073.aspx |archivedate=June 15, 2009 |deadurl=no}}</ref>}}
 
On September 17, 2006 in [[Anbar Province]] in [[Iraq]], Gunnery Sergeant Shawn Dempsey stumbled away from a [[Dragunov sniper rifle]] bullet that hit the [[Small Arms Protective Insert]] (SAPI) plate in a sleeve inside his vest.  He had a big bruise on his back and was in pain, but had he been wearing an older version of the armor plates, Dempsey would have likely died or been paralyzed. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wbur.org/npr/6206046 |title=Body Armor Saves 'Lucky' Marine in Iraq |author=[http://www.npr.org/people/5457129/tom-bowman Tom Bowman]|date= October 6, 2006 |publisher=NPR |accessdate=October 30, 2013 |archiveurl= |archivedate= |deadurl=no}}</ref>
 
==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}
 
==References==
*{{cite book | last = Williams | first = Alan | title = The Knight and the Blast Furnace: A History of the Metallurgy of Armour in the Middle Ages & the Early Modern Period | publisher = Brill Academic Publishers | location = Leiden, The Netherlands | year = 2003 | isbn = 978-90-04-12498-1 |series=History of Warfare Volume 12 |oclc=49386331 }}
 
==See also ==
* [[Military gear]]
* [[Bulletproof vest]]
* [[Liquid Armor]]
 
==External links==
*[http://www.museumsyndicate.com/tag.php?id=51 Gallery of Examples]
*[http://www.bodyarmornews.com Website about modern day body armor]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Personal Armor}}
[[Category:Personal armour|*]]
 
[[id:Zirah]]

Revision as of 17:08, 7 January 2014

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United States Marines in July 2010 assist a Sri Lankan Navy sailor in trying on a Modular Tactical Vest.

Personal armour (also known as personal armor or body armour) is the whole of protecting clothing, designed to absorb and/or deflect slashing, bludgeoning, and penetrating attacks. They were historically used to protect soldiers, whereas today, they are also used to protect various types of police (especially riot police in particular), private citizens, private security guards or bodyguards. Two types exist: regular non-plated personal armor (used by the people mentioned above, except combat soldiers) and hard-plate reinforced personal armor, which is used by combat soldiers, police tactical units and hostage rescue teams.

History

Japanese warrior in armor.
Greek Mycenaean armor, c. 1400 BC

Many factors have affected the development of personal armor throughout human history. Significant factors in the development of armor include the economic and technological necessities of armor production. For instance plate armor first appeared in Medieval Europe when water-powered trip hammers made the formation of plates faster and cheaper. Also modern militaries usually do not provide the best armor to their forces since doing so would be prohibitively costly. At times the development of armor has run parallel to the development of increasingly effective weaponry on the battlefield, with armorers seeking to create better protection without sacrificing mobility.

Ancient

Bronze lamellae- Vietnam, 300 BC - 100 BC

The oldest known western armor is the Dendra panoply, dating from the Mycenaean Era around 1400 BC Mail, also referred to as chainmail, is made of interlocking iron rings, which may be riveted or welded shut. It is believed to have been invented by the Celtic people in Eastern Europe about 500 BC.Potter or Ceramic Artist Truman Bedell from Rexton, has interests which include ceramics, best property developers in singapore developers in singapore and scrabble. Was especially enthused after visiting Alejandro de Humboldt National Park. When these Celts moved West they took mail with them. Most cultures who used mail used the Celtic word Byrnne or a variant, suggesting the Celts as the originators. [1] [2] [3] The Romans widely adopted mail as the lorica hamata, although they also made use of lorica segmentata and Lorica squamata. While no non-metallic armor survives, a linen laminate known as linothorax is repeatedly mentioned in ancient Greek sources.

In East Asian history laminated armor such as lamellar, and styles similar to the coat of plates, and brigandine were commonly used. Later cuirasses and plates were also used. In pre-Qin dynasty times, leather armor was made out of rhinoceros. Chinese influence in Japan would result in the Japanese adopting Chinese styles, their samurai armor being a result of this influence.

Middle Ages

Turkish plated mail.

In European history, well-known armor types include the mail hauberk of the early medieval age, and the full steel plate harness worn by later Medieval and Renaissance knights, and a few key components (breast and back plates) by heavy cavalry in several European countries until the first year of World War I (1914–15).

Plate

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Gradually, small additional plates or discs of iron were added to the mail to protect vulnerable areas. By the late 13th century, the knees were capped, and two circular discs, called besagews were fitted to protect the underarms. A variety of methods for improving the protection provided by mail were used as armorers seemingly experimented.Potter or Ceramic Artist Truman Bedell from Rexton, has interests which include ceramics, best property developers in singapore developers in singapore and scrabble. Was especially enthused after visiting Alejandro de Humboldt National Park. Hardened leather and splinted construction were used for arm and leg pieces. The coat of plates was developed, an armor made of large plates sewn inside a textile or leather coat.

Renaissance/Early Modern suits of armor appropriate for heavy cavalry

Early plate in Italy, and elsewhere in the 13th–15th century were made of iron. Iron armor could be carburized or case hardened to give a surface of harder steel.[4] Plate armor became cheaper than mail by the 15th century as it required much less labor and labor had become much more expensive after the Black Death, though it did require larger furnaces to produce larger blooms. Mail continued to be used to protect those joints which could not be adequately protected by plate, such as the armpit, crook of the elbow and groin. Another advantage of plate was that a lance rest could be fitted to the breast plate.[5]

The small skull cap evolved into a bigger true helmet, the bascinet, as it was lengthened downward to protect the back of the neck and the sides of the head. Additionally, several new forms of fully enclosed helmets were introduced in the late 14th century to replace the great helm, such as the sallet and barbute and later the armet and close helm.

Probably the most recognized style of armor in the world became the plate armor associated with the knights of the European Late Middle Ages, but continuing to the early 17th century Age of Enlightenment in all European countries.

By about 1400 the full harness of plate armor had been developed in armories of Lombardy[6] Heavy cavalry dominated the battlefield for centuries in part because of their armor.

In the early 15th century, small "hand cannon" first began to be used, in the Hussite Wars, in combination with Wagenburg tactics, allowing infantry to defeat armored knights on the battlefield. At the same time crossbows were made more powerful to pierce armor, and the development of the Swiss Pike square formation also created substantial problems for heavy cavalry. Rather than dooming the use of body armor, the threat of small firearms intensified the use and further refinement of plate armor. There was a 150 year period in which better and more metallurgically advanced steel armor was being used, precisely because of the danger posed by the gun. Hence, guns and cavalry in plate armor were "threat and remedy" together on the battlefield for almost 400 years. By the 15th century Italian armor plates were almost always made of steel.[7] In Southern Germany armorers began to harden their steel armor only in the late 15th century. They would continue to harden their steel for the next century because they quenched and tempered their product which allowed for the fire-gilding to be combined with tempering.[8]

The quality of the metal used in armor deteriorated as armies became bigger and armor was made thicker, necessitating breeding of larger cavalry horses. If during the 14–15th centuries armor seldom weighed more than 15 kg, then by the late 16th century it weighed 25 kg.[9] The increasing weight and thickness of late-16th-century armor therefore gave substantial resistance.

In the early years of pistol and arquebuses, firearms were relatively low in velocity. The full suits of armor, or breast plates actually stopped bullets fired from a modest distance. The front breast plates were, in fact, commonly shot as a test. The impact point would often be encircled with engraving to point it out. This was called the "proof". Armor often also bore an insignia of the maker, especially if it was of good quality. Crossbow bolts, if still used, would seldom penetrate good plate, nor would any bullet unless fired from close range.

In effect, rather than making plate armor obsolete, the use of firearms stimulated the development of plate armor into its later stages. For most of that period, it allowed horsemen to fight while being the targets of defending arquebuseers without being easily killed. Full suits of armor were actually worn by generals and princely commanders right up to the second decade of the 18th century. While heavy, it permitted mounted commanders to survey a battlefield while providing safety from musket fire.

Horse armor

The horse was afforded protection from lances and infantry weapons by steel plate barding. This gave the horse protection and enhanced the visual impression of a mounted knight. Late in the era, elaborate barding was used in parade armor.

Gunpowder era

As gunpowder weapons improved, it became cheaper and more effective to have groups of unarmored men with early guns than to have expensive knights, which caused armor to be largely discarded. Cavalry units continued to use armor for longer. Example include the German Reiter, Polish heavy hussars and the back and breast worn by heavy cavalry units during the Napoleonic wars.

Anachronistic use

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World War I personal armour, including steel cap, steel plate vest, steel gauntlet/dagger and French splinter goggles.

Metal armor remained in limited use long after its general obsolescence. Soldiers in the American Civil War (1861-1865) bought iron and steel vests from peddlers (both sides had considered but rejected it for standard issue). The effectiveness of the vests varied widely—some successfully deflected bullets and saved lives but others were poorly made and resulted in tragedy for the soldiers. In any case the vests were abandoned by many soldiers due to their weight on long marches as well as the stigma they got for being cowards from their fellow troops.

At the start of World War I in 1914, thousands of the French Cuirassiers rode out to engage the German Cavalry who likewise used helmets and armor. By that period, the shiny armor plate was covered in dark paint and a canvas wrap covered their elaborate Napoleonic-style helmets. Their armor was meant to protect only against sabers and light lances. The cavalry had to beware of high velocity rifles and machine guns like the foot soldiers, who at least had a trench to protect them.

Modern armor

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In 12 months 2013, c ommercial retails, shoebox residences and mass market properties continued to be the celebrities of the property market. Models are snapped up in report time and at document breaking prices. Builders are having fun with overwhelming demand and patrons need more. We feel that these segments of the property market are booming is a repercussion of the property cooling measures no.6 and no. 7. With additional buyer's stamp responsibility imposed on residential properties, buyers change their focus to commercial and industrial properties. I imagine every property purchasers need their property funding to understand in value. Soldiers use metal or ceramic plates in their battledress, providing additional protection from rifle rounds. Metallic components or tightly-woven fiber layers can give soft armor resistance to stab and slash attacks from a knife. Mail armor continues to be used as protection against stab/slash attacks.

Fibers

Kevlar is well known as a component of some bullet resistant vests and bullet resistant face masks. The PASGT helmet and vest used by United States military forces since the early 1980s both have Kevlar as a key component, as do their replacements. Other military uses include bullet resistant facemasks used by sentries. Civilian applications include Kevlar reinforced clothing for motorcycle riders to protect against abrasion injuries. Kevlar in non-woven long strand form is used inside an outer protective cover to form chaps that loggers use while operating a chainsaw. If the moving chain contacts and tears through the outer cover, the long fibers of Kevlar tangle, clog, and stop the chain from moving as they get drawn into the workings of the drive mechanism of the saw. Kevlar is used also in Emergency Service's protection gear if it involves high heat (e.g., tackling a fire), and Kevlar such as vests for police officers, security, and SWAT. The latest Kevlar material that DuPont has developed is Kevlar XP. In comparison with 'normal' Kevlar, Kevlar XP is more light-weight and more comfortable to wear, as it is quilt stitch is not required for the ballistic package.

Another fiber used to manufacture a bullet resistant vest is Dyneema. Originated in the Netherlands, Dyneema has an extremely high strength-to-weight ratio (a 1-mm-diameter rope of Dyneema can bear up to a 240-kg load), is light enough that it can float on water, and has high energy absorption characteristics. Dyneema is a polyethylene fiber.

Protected areas

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Shield

An American police officer in October 2002 wears a helmet while equipped with a riot shield.

A shield is held in the hand or arm. Its purpose is to intercept attacks, either by stopping projectiles such as arrows or by glancing a blow to the side of the shield-user. Shields are also used offensively as a bludgeoning weapon. Shields vary greatly in size, ranging from large shields that protect the user's entire body to small shields that are mostly for use in hand-to-hand combat. Shields also vary a great deal in thickness; whereas some shields were made of thick wooden planking, to protect soldiers from spears and crossbow bolts, other shields were thinner and designed mainly for glancing blows away (such as a sword blow). In prehistory, shields were made of wood, animal hide, or wicker. In antiquity and in the Middle Ages, shields were used by foot soldiers and mounted soldiers. Even after the invention of gunpowder and firearms, shields continued to be used. In the 18th century, Scottish clans continued to use small shields, and in the 19th century, some non-industrialized peoples continued to use shields. In the 20th and 21st century, shields are used by military and police units that specialize in anti-terrorist action, hostage rescue, and siege-breaching.

Head

A combat helmet is among the oldest forms of personal protective equipment, and is known to have been worn by the Assyrians around 900 BC, followed by the ancient Greeks and Romans, throughout the Middle Ages, and up to the end of the 17th century by many combatants.[10] Their materials and construction became more advanced as weapons became more and more powerful. Initially constructed from leather and brass, and then bronze and iron during the Bronze and Iron Ages, they soon came to be made entirely from forged steel in many societies after about 950 AD.[11] At that time, they were purely military equipment, protecting the head from cutting blows with swords, flying arrows, and low-velocity musketry. Many medieval helmets rested on the shoulders and prevented the wearer from turning his or her head, greatly restricting mobility. During the 18th and 19th centuries, helmets were not widely used in warfare, instead many armies used non-armored hats that offered no protection against blade or bullet. The arrival of World War I, with its trench warfare and wide use of artillery, led to mass adoption of metal helmets once again, this time with a shape that offered mobility, a low profile, and compatibility with gas masks. Today's militaries often use high-quality helmets made of ballistic materials such as Kevlar and Aramid, which have excellent bullet and fragmentation stopping power. Some helmets also have good non-ballistic protective qualities, though many do not.[12] The two most popular ballistic helmet models are the PASGT and the MICH. The Modular Integrated Communications Helmet (MICH) type helmet has a slightly smaller coverage at the sides which allows tactical headsets and other communication equipment. The MICH model has standard pad suspension and four-point chinstrap. The Personal Armor System for Ground Troops (PASGT) helmet has been in use since 1983 and has slowly been replaced by the MICH helmet.[13]

A ballistic face mask is designed to protect the wearer from ballistic threats. Ballistic face masks are usually made of kevlar or other bullet-resistant materials and the inside of the mask may be padded for shock absorption, depending on the design. Due to weight restrictions, protection levels range only up to NIJ Level IIIA.

Torso

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church.

United States Navy sailors in December 2007 wearing Lightweight Helmets and Modular Tactical Vests equipped with neck and groin armor, while participating in Operation Bearing Duel at Fort Hunter Liggett, California.

A ballistic vest helps absorb the impact from firearm-fired projectiles and shrapnel from explosions, and is worn on the torso. Soft vests are made from many layers of woven or laminated fibers and can be capable of protecting the wearer from small caliber handgun and shotgun projectiles, and small fragments from explosives such as hand grenades.

Metal or ceramic plates can be used with a soft vest, providing additional protection from rifle rounds, and metallic components or tightly-woven fiber layers can give soft armor resistance to stab and slash attacks from a knife. Soft vests are commonly worn by police forces, private citizens and private security guards or bodyguards, whereas hard-plate reinforced vests are mainly worn by combat soldiers, police tactical units and hostage rescue teams.

A modern equivalent may combine a ballistic vest with other items of protective clothing, such as a combat helmet. Vests intended for police and military use may also include ballistic shoulder and side protection armor components, and explosive ordnance disposal technicians wear heavy armor and helmets with face visors and spine protection.

Limbs

Medieval armor often offered protection for all of the limbs, including metal boots for the lower legs, gauntlets for the hands and wrists, and greaves for the legs. Today, protection of limbs from bombs is provided by a bombsuit. Most modern soldiers sacrifice limb protection for mobility, since armor thick enough to stop bullets would greatly inhibit movement of the arms and legs.

Performance standards

Due to the various different types of projectile, it is often inaccurate to refer to a particular product as "bulletproof" because this implies that it will protect against any and all projectiles. Instead, the term bullet resistant is generally preferred.

The standards are regional. Around the world ammunition varies and as a result the armor testing must reflect the threats found locally. According to statistics from the National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial Fund, a law enforcement officer’s job is extremely dangerous with one officer being killed every 53 hours in the line of duty. Even more astounding is that this number is on the rise. In 2011, 173 officers were killed, with 68 of them being killed due to a gun-related incident.[14] As a result each law enforcement agency or para-military organizations will have their own standard for armor performance if only to ensure that their armor protects them from their own weapon. While many standards exist a few standards are widely used as models. The US National Institute of Justice ballistic and stab documents are examples of broadly accepted standards. Since the time that NIJ started testing, the lives of more than 3,000 officers were saved.[15] In addition to the NIJ, the United Kingdom's Home Office Scientific Development Branch (HOSDB—formerly the Police Scientific Development Branch (PSDB)) standards are also used by a number of other countries and organizations. These "model" standards are usually adapted by other countries by incorporation of the basic test methodologies with modification of the bullets that are required for test. NIJ Standard-0101.06 has specific performance standards for bullet resistant vests used by law enforcement. This rates vests on the following scale against penetration and also blunt trauma protection (deformation):[16]

Armor Level (Higher is better) Protection
Type I
(.22 LR; .380 ACP) 		This armor would protect against:
  • 2.6 g (40 gr) .22 Long Rifle Lead Round Nose (LR LRN) bullets at a velocity of 329 m/s (1080 ft/s ± 30 ft/s); and
  • 6.2 g (95 gr) .380 ACP Full Metal Jacketed Round Nose (FMJ RN) bullets at a velocity of 322 m/s (1055 ft/s ± 30 ft/s).

It is no longer part of the standard.

Type IIA
(9 mm; .40 S&W; .45 ACP) 		New armor protects against:
  • 8 g (124 gr) 9×19mm Parabellum Full Metal Jacketed Round Nose (FMJ RN) bullets at a velocity of 373 m/s ± 9.1 m/s (1225 ft/s ± 30 ft/s);
  • 11.7 g (180 gr) .40 S&W Full Metal Jacketed (FMJ) bullets at a velocity of 352 m/s ± 9.1 m/s (1155 ft/s ± 30 ft/s); and
  • 14.9 g (230 gr) .45 ACP Full Metal Jacketed (FMJ) bullets at a velocity of 275 m/s ± 9.1 m/s (900 ft/s ± 30 ft/s).

Conditioned armor protects against:

  • 8 g (124 gr) 9 mm FMJ RN bullets at a velocity of 355 m/s ± 9.1 m/s (1165 ft/s ± 30 ft/s);
  • 11.7 g (180 gr) .40 S&W FMJ bullets at a velocity of 325 m/s ± 9.1 m/s (1065 ft/s ± 30 ft/s); and
  • 14.9 g (230 gr) .45 ACP Full Metal Jacketed (FMJ) bullets at a velocity of 259 m/s ± 9.1 m/s (850 ft/s ± 30 ft/s).

It also provides protection against the threats mentioned in [Type I].

Type II
(9 mm; .357 Magnum) 		New armor protects against:
  • 8 g (124 gr) 9 mm FMJ RN bullets at a velocity of 398 m/s ± 9.1 m/s (1305 ft/s ± 30 ft/s); and
  • 10.2 g (158 gr) .357 Magnum Jacketed Soft Point bullets at a velocity of 436 m/s ± 9.1 m/s (1430 ft/s ± 30 ft/s).

Conditioned armor protects against:

  • 8 g (124 gr) 9 mm FMJ RN bullets at a velocity of 379 m/s ±9.1 m/s (1245 ft/s ± 30 ft/s); and
  • 10.2 g (158 gr) .357 Magnum Jacketed Soft Point bullets at a velocity of 408 m/s ±9.1 m/s (1340 ft/s ± 30 ft/s).

It also provides protection against the threats mentioned in [Types I and IIA].

Type IIIA
(.357 SIG; .44 Magnum) 		New armor protects against:
  • 8.1 g (125 gr) .357 SIG FMJ Flat Nose (FN) bullets at a velocity of 448 m/s ± 9.1 m/s (1470 ft/s ± 30 ft/s); and
  • 15.6 g (240 gr) .44 Magnum Semi Jacketed Hollow Point (SJHP) bullets at a velocity of 436 m/s (1430 ft/s ± 30 ft/s).

Conditioned armor protects against:

  • 8.1 g (125 gr) .357 SIG FMJ Flat Nose (FN) bullets at a velocity of 430 m/s ± 9.1 m/s (1410 ft/s ± 30 ft/s); and
  • 15.6 g (240 gr) .44 Magnum Semi Jacketed Hollow Point (SJHP) bullets at a velocity of 408 m/s ± 9.1 m/s (1340 ft/s ± 30 ft/s).

It also provides protection against most handgun threats, as well as the threats mentioned in [Types I, IIA, and II].

Type III
(Rifles) 		Conditioned armor protects against:

It also provides protection against the threats mentioned in [Types I, IIA, II, and IIIA].

Type IV
(Armor Piercing Rifle) 		Conditioned armor protects against:
  • 10.8 g (166 gr) .30-06 Springfield M2 armor-piercing (AP) bullets at a velocity of 878 m/s ± 9.1 m/s (2880 ft/s ± 30 ft/s).

It also provides at least single hit protection against the threats mentioned in [Types I, IIA, II, IIIA, and III].

In addition to the NIJ and HOSDB standards, other important standards include: the German Police's Technische Richtlinie (TR) Ballistische Schutzwesten,[17] Draft ISO prEN ISO 14876,[18][19][20] and Underwriters Laboratories (UL Standard 752).[21]

Textile armor is tested for both penetration resistance by bullets and for the impact energy transmitted to the wearer. The "backface signature" or transmitted impact energy is measured by shooting armor mounted in front of a backing material, typically oil-based modelling clay. The clay is used at a controlled temperature and verified for impact flow before testing. After the armor is impacted with the test bullet the vest is removed from the clay and the depth of the indentation in the clay is measured.[16]

The backface signature allowed by different test standards can be difficult to compare. Both the clay materials and the bullets used for the test are not common. In general the British, German and other European standards allow 20–25 mm of backface signature, while the US-NIJ standards allow for 44 mm, which can potentially cause internal injury.[22] The allowable backface signature for this has been controversial from its introduction in the first NIJ test standard and the debate as to the relative importance of penetration-resistance vs. backface signature continues in the medical and testing communities.

In general a vest's textile material temporarily degrades when wet. Neutral water at room temp does not affect para-aramid or UHMWPE but acidic, basic and some other solutions can permanently reduce para-aramid fiber tensile strength.[23] (As a result of this, the major test standards call for wet testing of textile armor.[24]) Mechanisms for this wet loss of performance are not known. Vests that will be tested after ISO-type water immersion tend to have heat-sealed enclosures and those that are tested under NIJ-type water spray methods tend to have water-resistant enclosures.

From 2003 to 2005, a large study of the environmental degradation of Zylon armor was undertaken by the US-NIJ. This concluded that water, long-term use, and temperature exposure significantly affect tensile strength and the ballistic performance of PBO or Zylon fiber. This NIJ study on vests returned from the field demonstrated that environmental effects on Zylon resulted in ballistic failures under standard test conditions.[25]

Ballistic testing V50 and V0

Measuring the ballistic performance of armor is based on determining the kinetic energy of a bullet at impact. Because the energy of a bullet is a key factor in its penetrating capacity, velocity is used as the primary independent variable in ballistic testing. For most users the key measurement is the velocity at which no bullets will penetrate the armor. Measuring this zero penetration velocity (V0) must take into account variability in armor performance and test variability. Ballistic testing has a number of sources of variability: the armor, test backing materials, bullet, casing, powder, primer and the gun barrel, to name a few.

Variability reduces the predictive power of a determination of V0. If for example, the V0 of an armor design is measured to be Template:Convert with a 9 mm FMJ bullet based on 30 shots, the test is only an estimate of the real V0 of this armor. The problem is variability. If the V0 is tested again with a second group of 30 shots on the same vest design, the result will not be identical.

Only a single low velocity penetrating shot is required to reduce the V0 value. The more shots made the lower the V0 will go. In terms of statistics, the zero penetration velocity is the tail end of the distribution curve. If the variability is known and the standard deviation can be calculated, one can rigorously set the V0 at a confidence interval. Test Standards now define how many shots must be used to estimate a V0 for the armor certification. This procedure defines a confidence interval of an estimate of V0. (See "NIJ and HOSDB test methods".)

V0 is difficult to measure, so a second concept has been developed in ballistic testing called V50. This is the velocity at which 50 percent of the shots go through and 50 percent are stopped by the armor. US military standards[26] define a commonly used procedure for this test. The goal is to get three shots that penetrate that are slower than a second group of three shots that are stopped by the armor. These three high stops and three low penetrations can then be used to calculate a V50 velocity.

In practice this measurement of V50 requires 1–2 vest panels and 10–20 shots. A very useful concept in armor testing is the offset velocity between the V0 and V50. If this offset has been measured for an armor design, then V50 data can be used to measure and estimate changes in V0. For vest manufacturing, field evaluation and life testing both V0 and V50 are used. However, as a result of the simplicity of making V50 measurements, this method is more important for control of armor after certification.

Cunniff analysis

Using dimensionless analysis, Cuniff[27] arrived at a relation connecting the V50 and the system parameters for textile-based body armors. Under the assumption that the energy of impact is dissipated in breaking the yarn, it was shown that

Here,

are the failure stress, failure strain, density and elastic modulus of the yarn
is the mass per unit area of the armor
is the mass per unit area of the projectile

Military testing

After the Vietnam War, military planners developed a concept of “Casualty Reduction”.[28] The large body of casualty data made clear that in a combat situation, fragments, not bullets, were the greatest threat to soldiers. After WWII vests were being developed and fragment testing was in its early stages.[29] Artillery shells, mortar shells, aerial bombs, grenades, and antipersonnel mines are all fragmentation devices. They all contain a steel casing that is designed to burst into small steel fragments or shrapnel, when their explosive core detonates. After considerable effort measuring fragment size distribution from various NATO and Soviet Bloc munitions, a fragment test was developed. Fragment simulators were designed and the most common shape is a Right Circular Cylinder or RCC simulator. This shape has a length equal to its diameter. These RCC Fragment Simulation Projectiles (FSPs) are tested as a group. The test series most often includes 2 grain (0.13 g), 4 grain (0.263 g), 16 grain (1.0 g), and 64 grain (4.2 g) mass RCC FSP testing. The 2-4-16-64 series is based on the measured fragment size distributions.

The second part of “Casualty Reduction” strategy is a study of velocity distributions of fragments from munitions.[30] Warhead explosives have blast speeds of Template:Convert to Template:Convert. As a result they are capable of ejecting fragments at very high speeds of over 1000 m/s (3330 ft/s), implying very high energy (where the energy of a fragment is ½ mass × velocity2, neglecting rotational energy). The military engineering data showed that like the fragment size the fragment velocities had characteristic distributions. It is possible to segment the fragment output from a warhead into velocity groups. For example 95% of all fragments from a bomb blast under Template:Convert have a velocity of Template:Convert or less. This established a set of goals for military ballistic vest design.

The random nature of fragmentation required the military vest specification to trade off mass vs. ballistic-benefit. Hard vehicle armor is capable of stopping all fragments, but military personnel can only carry a limited amount of gear and equipment, so the weight of the vest is a limiting factor in vest fragment protection. The 2-4-16-64 grain series at limited velocity can be stopped by an all-textile vest of approximately 5.4 kg/m2 (1.1 lb/ft2). In contrast to the design of vest for deformable lead bullets, fragments do not change shape; they are steel and can not be deformed by textile materials. The Template:Convert FSP (the smallest fragment projectile commonly used in testing) is about the size of a grain of rice; such small fast moving fragments can potentially slip through the vest, moving between yarns. As a result fabrics optimized for fragment protection are tightly woven, although these fabrics are not as effective at stopping lead bullets.

In practice

In December 2009, during the War in Afghanistan, a British soldier deployed in southern Helmand Province, survived a shot to the back during an operation to clear insurgents from a village, protected by the body armor kit he was wearing.

31 year-old Systems Analyst Bud from Deep River, spends time with pursuits for instance r/c cars, property developers new condo in singapore singapore and books. Last month just traveled to Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape.

On September 17, 2006 in Anbar Province in Iraq, Gunnery Sergeant Shawn Dempsey stumbled away from a Dragunov sniper rifle bullet that hit the Small Arms Protective Insert (SAPI) plate in a sleeve inside his vest. He had a big bruise on his back and was in pain, but had he been wearing an older version of the armor plates, Dempsey would have likely died or been paralyzed. [31]

Notes

43 year old Petroleum Engineer Harry from Deep River, usually spends time with hobbies and interests like renting movies, property developers in singapore new condominium and vehicle racing. Constantly enjoys going to destinations like Camino Real de Tierra Adentro.

References

  • 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534

See also

External links

id:Zirah

  1. ↑ Template:Cite news
  2. ↑ Template:Cite news
  3. ↑ Simon James, The World of the Celts (London: Thames and Hudson, 1993) p. 75-9, 114 ISBN 978-0-500-27998-4
  4. ↑ Williams, pp.740–741.
  5. ↑ Williams, p.55
  6. ↑ Williams, p.53
  7. ↑ Williams, p.66
  8. ↑ Williams, p.331
  9. ↑ Williams, p.916
  10. ↑ http://www.nps.gov/archive/colo/Jthanout/HisArmur.html
  11. ↑ Galea - About the Galea
  12. ↑ Kevlar Pasgt Helmet
  13. ↑ MICH helmet
  14. ↑ BodyArmorNews.com
  15. ↑ NIJ Standard
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Template:Cite web
  17. ↑ Template:Cite web
  18. ↑ Template:Cite web
  19. ↑ Template:Cite web
  20. ↑ Template:Cite web
  21. ↑ Template:Cite web
  22. ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  23. ↑ Kevlar, Twaron, Dyneema, Spectra technical data
  24. ↑ NIJ, HOSDB, US-Army and ISO ballistic test methods
  25. ↑ "Third Status Report to the Attorney General on Safety Initiative Testing and Activities"
  26. ↑ ARMY MIL-STD-662F V50 BALLISTIC TEST FOR ARMOR
  27. ↑ Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

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  28. ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  29. ↑ Design Information for Construction of Light Personnel Armor. Authors: Willard R. Beye 1950 MIDWEST RESEARCH INST KANSAS CITY MO
  30. ↑ Johnson, W., Collins, C., and Kindred, F., A Mathematical Model for Predicting Residual Velocities of Fragments After Perforating Helmets, Ballistic Research Laboratories Technical Note no. 1705, October 1968
  31. ↑ Template:Cite web
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