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{{Continuum mechanics|fluid}}
{{featured article}}
In [[physics]], the '''Navier–Stokes equations''' [{{IPA|navˈjeː stəʊks}}], named after [[Claude-Louis Navier]] and [[Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet|George Gabriel Stokes]], describe the motion of [[fluid]] substances. These equations arise from applying [[Newton's second law]] to [[Fluid dynamics|fluid motion]], together with the assumption that the [[stress (mechanics)|stress]] in the fluid is the sum of a [[diffusion|diffusing]] [[viscosity|viscous]] term (proportional to the [[gradient]] of velocity) and a [[pressure]] term—hence describing ''viscous flow''.
{{Infobox block cipher
 
| name          = Caesar cipher
The equations are useful because they describe the physics of many things of [[scientific]] and [[engineering]] interest. They may be used to [[model (abstract)|model]] the weather, [[ocean current]]s, water [[flow conditioning|flow in a pipe]] and air flow around a [[airfoil|wing]]. The Navier–Stokes equations in their full and simplified forms help with the design of aircraft and cars, the study of blood flow, the design of power stations, the analysis of pollution, and many other things. Coupled with [[Maxwell's equations]] they can be used to model and study [[magnetohydrodynamics]].
| image          = [[Image:Caesar3.svg|320px]]
 
| caption        = The action of a Caesar cipher is to replace each plaintext letter with one  fixed number of places down the alphabet. This example is with a shift of three, so that a <tt>B</tt> in the plaintext becomes <tt>E</tt> in the ciphertext.
The Navier–Stokes equations are also of great interest in a purely mathematical sense. Somewhat surprisingly, given their wide range of practical uses, it has not yet been proven that in three dimensions solutions always exist ([[Existence theorem|existence]]), or that if they do exist, then they do not contain any [[Mathematical singularity|singularity]] (they are smooth). These are called the [[Navier–Stokes existence and smoothness]] problems. The [[Clay Mathematics Institute]] has called this one of the [[Millennium Prize Problems|seven most important open problems in mathematics]] and has offered a US$1,000,000 prize for a solution or a counter-example.<ref>
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{{Citation
| designers      =
| url = http://www.claymath.org/millennium-problems
| publish date  =  
| title = Millennium Prize Problems
| series        =
| publisher = Clay Mathematics Institute
| derived from   =
| accessdate = 2014-01-14
| derived to     =  
}}</ref>
| related to    =  
 
| certification  =
==Velocity field==
<!-- Cipher detail -->
The solution of the Navier–Stokes equations is a [[flow velocity]] not [[position (vector)|position]]. It is called a flow [[velocity field]] or flow field, which is a description of the flow velocity at a given point in space and time. Once the velocity field is solved for, other quantities of interest, such as [[Pressure]] or [[Temperature]], may be found. This is different from what one normally sees in [[classical mechanics]], where solutions are typically trajectories of position of a [[particle]] or deflection of a [[Continuum (theory)|continuum]]. Studying velocity instead of position makes more sense for a fluid; however for visualization purposes one can compute various [[Streamlines, streaklines, and pathlines|trajectories]].
| key size      =  
 
| security claim =  
==Properties==
| block size    =  
 
| structure      = [[substitution cipher]]
===Nonlinearity===
| rounds        =  
 
| cryptanalysis  = Susceptible to [[frequency analysis]] and brute force attacks.
The Navier–Stokes equations are [[nonlinear]] [[partial differential equations]] in almost every real situation.<ref>Fluid Mechanics (Schaum's Series), M. Potter, D.C. Wiggert, Schaum's Outlines, McGraw-Hill (USA), 2008, ISBN 978-0-07-148781-8</ref><ref>Vectors, Tensors, and the basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics, R. Aris, Dover Publications, 1989, ISBN(10) 0-486-66110-5</ref> In some cases, such as one-dimensional flow and [[Stokes flow]] (or creeping flow), the equations can be simplified to linear equations. The nonlinearity makes most problems difficult or impossible to solve and is the main contributor to the [[turbulence]] that the equations model.
 
The nonlinearity is due to [[convective]] acceleration, which is an acceleration associated with the change in velocity over position. Hence, any convective flow, whether turbulent or not, will involve nonlinearity. An example of convective but [[laminar flow|laminar]] (nonturbulent) flow would be the passage of a viscous fluid (for example, oil) through a small converging [[nozzle]]. Such flows, whether exactly solvable or not, can often be thoroughly studied and understood.<ref>McGraw Hill Encyclopaedia of Physics (2nd Edition), C.B. Parker, 1994, ISBN 0-07-051400-3</ref>
 
===Turbulence===
 
[[Turbulence]] is the time-dependent [[Chaos theory|chaotic]] behavior seen in many fluid flows. It is generally believed that it is due to the [[inertia]] of the fluid as a whole: the culmination of time-dependent and convective acceleration; hence flows where inertial effects are small tend to be laminar (the [[Reynolds number]] quantifies how much the flow is affected by inertia). It is believed, though not known with certainty, that the Navier–Stokes equations describe turbulence properly.<ref>Encyclopaedia of Physics (2nd Edition), R.G. Lerner, G.L. Trigg, VHC publishers, 1991, ISBN (Verlagsgesellschaft) 3-527-26954-1, ISBN (VHC Inc.) 0-89573-752-3</ref>
 
The numerical solution of the Navier–Stokes equations for turbulent flow is extremely difficult, and due to the significantly different mixing-length scales that are involved in turbulent flow, the stable solution of this requires such a fine mesh resolution that the computational time becomes significantly infeasible for calculation or [[direct numerical simulation]]. Attempts to solve turbulent flow using a laminar solver typically result in a time-unsteady solution, which fails to converge appropriately. To counter this, time-averaged equations such as the [[Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations]] (RANS), supplemented with turbulence models, are used in practical [[computational fluid dynamics]] (CFD) applications when modeling turbulent flows. Some models include the [[Spalart–Allmaras turbulence model|Spalart-Allmaras]], [[k-omega turbulence model|k-ω]] (k-omega), [[turbulence kinetic energy|k-ε]] (k-epsilon), and SST models, which add a variety of additional equations to bring closure to the RANS equations. [[Large eddy simulation]] (LES) can also be used to solve these equations numerically. This approach is computationally more expensive—in time and in computer memory—than RANS, but produces better results because it explicitly resolves the larger turbulent scales.
 
===Applicability===
{{further|Discretization of Navier–Stokes equations}}
Together with supplemental equations (for example, conservation of mass) and well formulated boundary conditions, the Navier–Stokes equations seem to model fluid motion accurately; even turbulent flows seem (on average) to agree with real world observations.
 
The Navier–Stokes equations assume that the fluid being studied is a [[Continuum mechanics|continuum]] (it is infinitely divisible and not composed of particles such as atoms or molecules), and is not moving at [[Special relativity#Relativistic mechanics|relativistic velocities]]. At very small scales or under extreme conditions, real fluids made out of discrete molecules will produce results different from the continuous fluids modeled by the Navier–Stokes equations. Depending on the [[Knudsen number]] of the problem, the [[Boltzmann equation]] may be a suitable replacement; failing that, one may find the techniques of [[statistical mechanics]] sufficient or have to resort to [[molecular dynamics]].
 
Another limitation is simply the complicated nature of the equations. Time-tested formulations exist for common fluid families, but the application of the Navier–Stokes equations to less common families tends to result in very complicated formulations and often to open research problems. For this reason, these equations are usually rewritten for [[Newtonian fluid]]s where the viscosity model is [[linear]]; truly general models for the flow of other kinds of fluids (such as blood) do not, as of 2012, exist .{{citation needed|date=December 2013}}
 
==Derivation and description==
 
{{Main|Derivation of the Navier–Stokes equations}}
 
The derivation of the Navier–Stokes equations begins with an application of [[Newton's second law]]: conservation of momentum (often alongside mass and energy conservation) being written for an arbitrary portion of the fluid. In an [[inertial frame of reference]], the general form of the equations of fluid motion is:<ref>Batchelor (1967) pp. 137 & 142.</ref>
 
{{Equation box 1
|indent=:
|title='''Navier–Stokes equations''' ''(general)''
|equation=<math> \rho \left(\frac{\partial \mathbf{u}}{\partial t} + \mathbf{u} \cdot \nabla \mathbf{u} \right) = -\nabla p + \nabla \cdot\boldsymbol \tau + \mathbf{f}</math>
|cellpadding
|border
|border colour = #50C878
|background colour = #ECFCF4
}}
}}
where
In [[cryptography]], a '''Caesar cipher''', also known as '''Caesar's cipher''', the '''shift cipher''', '''Caesar's code''' or '''Caesar shift''', is one of the simplest and most widely known [[encryption]] techniques. It is a type of [[substitution cipher]] in which each letter in the [[plaintext]] is replaced by a letter some fixed number of positions down the [[alphabet]]. For example, with a shift of 3, <tt>A</tt> would be replaced by <tt>D</tt>, <tt>B</tt> would become <tt>E</tt>, and so on. The method is named after [[Julius Caesar]], who used it in his private correspondence.
: <math>\mathbf{u}</math> is the flow velocity,
: <math>\rho</math> is the fluid density,
: <math>p</math> is the pressure,
: <math>\boldsymbol \tau</math> is the ([[Cauchy stress tensor#Stress deviator tensor|deviatoric]]) component of the [[Cauchy stress tensor|total stress tensor]], which has order two,
: <math>\mathbf{f}</math> represents [[body force]]s (per unit volume) acting on the fluid,
: <math>\nabla</math> is the [[del]] operator.


This is a statement of the conservation of momentum in a fluid and it is an application of Newton's second law to a [[Continuum mechanics|continuum]]; in fact this equation is applicable to any non-relativistic continuum and is known as the [[Cauchy momentum equation]].
The encryption step performed by a Caesar cipher is often incorporated as part of more complex schemes, such as the [[Vigenère cipher]], and still has modern application in the [[ROT13]] system. As with all single alphabet substitution ciphers, the Caesar cipher is easily broken and in modern practice offers essentially no communication security.


This equation is often written using the [[material derivative]] ''D'''''u'''/''Dt'', making it more apparent that this is a statement of [[Newton's second law]]:
==Example==
The transformation can be represented by aligning two alphabets; the cipher alphabet is the plain alphabet rotated left or right by some number of positions. For instance, here is a Caesar cipher using a left rotation of three places (the shift parameter, here 3, is used as the [[key (cryptography)|key]]):


:<math>\rho \frac{D \mathbf{u}}{D t} = -\nabla p + \nabla \cdot\boldsymbol \tau + \mathbf{f}.</math>
Plain:   ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Cipher:  DEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABC


The left side of the equation describes acceleration, and may be composed of time-dependent or convective effects (also the effects of non-inertial coordinates if present). The right side of the equation is in effect a summation of body forces (such as gravity) and divergence of stress (pressure and shear stress).
When encrypting, a person looks up each letter of the message in the "plain" line and writes down the corresponding letter in the "cipher" line. Deciphering is done in reverse.  
Ciphertext: WKH TXLFN EURZQ IRA MXPSV RYHU WKH ODCB GRJ
Plaintext:  the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog


===Convective acceleration===
The encryption can also be represented using [[modular arithmetic]] by first transforming the letters into numbers, according to the scheme, A = 0, B = 1,..., Z = 25.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Luciano |first=Dennis |coauthors=Gordon Prichett |year=1987 |month=January |title=Cryptology: From Caesar Ciphers to Public-Key Cryptosystems |journal=The College Mathematics Journal |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=2–17 |doi=10.2307/2686311 |jstor=2686311 }}</ref> Encryption of a letter <math>x</math> by a shift ''n'' can be described mathematically as,<ref>{{cite book |title=Cryptology Unlocked |last=Wobst |first=Reinhard |year=2001 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-470-06064-3 |pages=19 }}</ref>


[[Image:ConvectiveAcceleration.png|thumb|An example of convection. Though the flow may be steady (time-independent), the fluid decelerates as it moves down the diverging duct (assuming incompressible or subsonic compressible flow), hence there is an acceleration happening over position.]]
: <math>E_n(x) = (x + n) \mod {26}.</math>


A significant feature of the Navier–Stokes equations is the presence of convective acceleration: the effect of time-independent acceleration of a fluid with respect to space. While individual fluid particles indeed experience time dependent-acceleration, the convective acceleration of the flow field is a spatial effect, one example being fluid speeding up in a nozzle.
Decryption is performed similarly,  


Regardless of what kind of fluid is being dealt with, convective acceleration is a [[nonlinear]] effect. Convective acceleration is present in most flows (exceptions include one-dimensional incompressible flow), but its dynamic effect is disregarded in [[creeping flow]] (also called Stokes flow). Convective acceleration is represented by the [[nonlinear]] quantity:
: <math>D_n(x) = (x - n) \mod {26}.</math>


:<math>\mathbf{u} \cdot \nabla \mathbf{u}</math>
(There are different definitions for the [[modulo operation]]. In the above, the result is in the range 0...25. I.e., if ''x+n'' or ''x-n'' are not in the range 0...25, we have to subtract or add 26.)


which may be interpreted either as  <math>(\mathbf{u}\cdot\nabla)\,\mathbf{u}</math> or as <math>\mathbf{u}\cdot(\nabla\mathbf{u}),</math> with <math>\nabla \mathbf{u}</math> the [[tensor derivative]] of the velocity vector <math>\mathbf{u}.</math> Both interpretations give the same result, independent of the coordinate system&nbsp;— provided <math>\nabla</math> is interpreted as the [[covariant derivative]].<ref name=Emanuel>{{Citation | last=Emanuel | first=G. | title=Analytical fluid dynamics | publisher=CRC Press | year=2001 | edition=second | isbn=0-8493-9114-8 }} pp. 6–7.</ref>
The replacement remains the same throughout the message, so the cipher is classed as a type of ''[[monoalphabetic substitution]]'', as opposed to ''[[polyalphabetic substitution]]''.


====Advection operator====
==History and usage==
[[Image:Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 BC).JPG|thumbnail|The Caesar cipher is named for [[Julius Caesar]], who used an alphabet with a left shift of three.]]


The convection term is often written as
The Caesar cipher is named after [[Julius Caesar]], who, according to [[Lives of the Twelve Caesars|Suetonius]], used it with a shift of three to protect messages of military significance. While Caesar's was the first recorded use of this scheme, other substitution ciphers are known to have been used earlier.
{{Quote|If he had anything confidential to say, he wrote it in cipher, that is, by so changing the order of the letters of the alphabet, that not a word could be made out. If anyone wishes to decipher these, and get at their meaning, he must substitute the fourth letter of the alphabet, namely D, for A, and so with the others.|[[Suetonius]]|''[[Life of Julius Caesar]]'' 56}}
His nephew, [[Augustus Caesar|Augustus]], also used the cipher, but with a right shift of one, and it did not wrap around to the beginning of the alphabet:
{{Quote|Whenever he wrote in cipher, he wrote B for A, C for B, and the rest of the letters on the same principle, using AA for X.|[[Suetonius]]|''[[Life of Augustus]]'' 88}}
There is evidence that Julius Caesar used more complicated systems as well,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Reinke |first=Edgar C. |year=1992 |month=December |title=Classical Cryptography |journal=The Classical Journal |volume=58 |issue=3 |pages=114 }}</ref> and one writer, [[Aulus Gellius]], refers to a (now lost) treatise on his ciphers:
{{Quote|There is even a rather ingeniously written treatise by the grammarian Probus concerning the secret meaning of letters in the composition of Caesar's epistles.|[[Aulus Gellius]]|''Attic Nights 17.9.1–5''}}


:<math>(\mathbf{u} \cdot \nabla) \mathbf{u}</math>
It is unknown how effective the Caesar cipher was at the time, but it is likely to have been reasonably secure, not least because most of Caesar's enemies would have been [[literacy|illiterate]] and others would have assumed that the messages were written in an unknown foreign language.<ref>{{cite book |title=Fundamentals of Computer Security |last=Pieprzyk |first=Josef |coauthors=Thomas Hardjono, Jennifer Seberry |year=2003 |publisher=Springer |isbn=3-540-43101-2 |pages=6 }}</ref> There is no record at that time of any techniques for the solution of simple substitution ciphers. The earliest surviving records date to the 9th century works of [[Al-Kindi]] in the [[Arab]] world with the discovery of [[frequency analysis]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Code Book |last=Singh |first=Simon |authorlink=Simon Singh |year=2000 |publisher=Anchor |isbn=0-385-49532-3 |pages=14–20 }}</ref>


where the [[advection|advection operator]] <math>\mathbf{u} \cdot \nabla</math> is used. Usually this representation is preferred as it is simpler than the one in terms of the tensor derivative <math>\nabla \mathbf{u}.</math><ref name=Emanuel/>
A Caesar cipher with a shift of one is used on the back of the [[Mezuzah]] to encrypt the [[Names of God in Judaism|names of God]]. This may be a holdover from an earlier time when Jewish people were not allowed to have Mezuzahs. The letters of the cryptogram themselves comprise a religiously significant "divine name" which [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] belief holds keeps the forces of evil in check.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/312102/jewish/Mezuzah-and-Astrology.htm |title= Mezuzah and Astrology |accessdate=2008-06-13 |author=Alexander Poltorak |publisher=[[chabad.org]]}}</ref>


====Tensor derivative====
In the 19th century, the personal advertisements section in newspapers would sometimes be used to exchange messages encrypted using simple cipher schemes. [[David Kahn (writer)|Kahn]] (1967) describes instances of lovers engaging in secret communications enciphered using the Caesar cipher in ''[[The Times]]''.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Codebreakers |last=Kahn |first=David |authorlink=David Kahn (writer) |year=1967 |isbn=978-0-684-83130-5) |pages=775–6 }}</ref> Even as late as 1915, the Caesar cipher was in use: the Russian army employed it as a replacement for more complicated ciphers which had proved to be too difficult for their troops to master; German and Austrian cryptanalysts had little difficulty in decrypting their messages.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Codebreakers |last=Kahn |first=David |authorlink=David Kahn (writer) |year=1967 |isbn=978-0-684-83130-5) |pages=631–2 }}</ref>
Here <math>\nabla \mathbf{u}</math> is the tensor derivative of the velocity vector, equal in Cartesian coordinates to the component-by-component gradient. Note that the gradient of a vector is being defined as <math>\left[\nabla \mathbf{u}\right]_{mi}=\partial_m v_i</math>, so that <math>\left[\mathbf{u}\cdot\left(\nabla \mathbf{u}\right)\right]_i=v_m \partial_m v_i=\left[(\mathbf{u}\cdot\nabla)\mathbf{u}\right]_i</math>.


====In irrotational flow====
Caesar ciphers can be found today in children's toys such as [[secret decoder ring]]s. A Caesar shift of thirteen is also performed in the [[ROT13]] [[algorithm]], a simple method of obfuscating text widely found on [[Usenet]] and used to obscure text (such as joke punchlines and story [[Spoiler (media)|spoilers]]), but not seriously used as a method of encryption.<ref>{{cite book |title=Cryptology Unlocked |last=Wobst |first=Reinhard |year=2001 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-470-06064-3 |pages=20 }}</ref>
The convection term may, by a [[vector calculus identities#Vector dot product|vector calculus identity]], be expressed without a tensor derivative:<ref>See Batchelor (1967), §3.5, p. 160.</ref><ref>{{Citation
| url = http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ConvectiveDerivative.html
| title = Convective Derivative
| author = [[Eric W. Weisstein]]
| publisher = [[MathWorld]]
| accessdate = 2008-05-20
}}</ref>


:<math>\mathbf{u} \cdot \nabla \mathbf{u} = \nabla \left( \frac{\|\mathbf{u}\|^2}{2} \right) + \left( \nabla \times \mathbf{u} \right) \times \mathbf{u}.</math>
The [[Vigenère cipher]] uses a Caesar cipher with a different shift at each position in the text; the value of the shift is defined using a repeating keyword. If the keyword is as long as the message, chosen [[randomly|random]], never becomes known to anyone else, and is never reused, this is the [[one-time pad]] cipher, proven unbreakable. The conditions are so difficult they are, in practical effect, never achieved. Keywords shorter than the message (e.g., "[[Vigenère cipher#History|Complete Victory]]" used by the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]] during the [[American Civil War]]), introduce a cyclic pattern that might be detected with a statistically advanced version of frequency analysis.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Codebreakers |last=Kahn |first=David |authorlink=David Kahn (writer) |year=1967 |isbn=978-0-684-83130-5) }}</ref>


The form has use in irrotational flow, where the [[Curl (mathematics)|curl]] of the velocity (called [[vorticity]]) <math>\omega=\nabla \times \mathbf{u}</math> is equal to zero. Therefore, this reduces to only
In April 2006, fugitive [[Mafia]] boss [[Bernardo Provenzano]] was captured in [[Sicily]] partly because some of his messages, written in a variation of the Caesar cipher, were broken. Provenzano's cipher used numbers, so that "A" would be written as "4", "B" as "5", and so on.<ref>{{cite news |first=John |last=Leyden |title=Mafia boss undone by clumsy crypto |url=http://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/04/19/mafia_don_clueless_crypto/ |publisher=''[[The Register]]'' |date=2006-04-19 |accessdate=2008-06-13 }}</ref>


:<math>\mathbf{u} \cdot \nabla \mathbf{u} = \nabla \left( \frac{\|\mathbf{u}\|^2}{2} \right).</math>
In 2011, Rajib Karim was convicted in the [[United Kingdom]] of "terrorism offences" after using the Caesar cipher to communicate with Bangladeshi Islamic activists discussing plots to blow up [[British Airways]] planes or disrupt their IT networks.  Although the parties had access to far better encryption techniques (Karim himself used [[Pretty Good Privacy|PGP]] for data storage on computer disks), they chose to use their own scheme instead (implemented in [[Microsoft Excel]]) "because 'kaffirs', or non-believers, know about it [ie, PGP] so it must be less secure".
<ref>{{cite news |title=BA jihadist relied on Jesus-era encryption |url=http://www.theregister.co.uk/2011/03/22/ba_jihadist_trial_sentencing/ |publisher=''[[The Register]]'' |date=2011-03-22 |accessdate=2011-04-01 }}</ref>


===Stresses===<!--Lift (force) has a wikilink to here-->
==Breaking the cipher==
{| class="wikitable" align="right" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em"
! Decryption<br>shift
! Candidate plaintext
|- align="center"
|  0
| <tt>exxegoexsrgi</tt>
|- align="center"
| 1
| <tt>dwwdfndwrqfh</tt>
|- align="center"
| 2
| <tt>cvvcemcvqpeg</tt>
|- align="center"
| 3
| <tt>buubdlbupodf</tt>
|- align="center"
| {{highlight2}} | 4
| {{highlight2}} | <tt>attackatonce</tt>
|- align="center"
| 5
| <tt>zsszbjzsnmbd</tt>
|- align="center"
| 6
| <tt>yrryaiyrmlac</tt>
|- align="center"
| colspan="2" | ...
|- align="center"
|  23
| <tt>haahjrhavujl</tt>
|- align="center"
| 24
| <tt>gzzgiqgzutik</tt>
|- align="center"
| 25
| <tt>fyyfhpfytshj</tt>
|}
The Caesar cipher can be easily broken even in a [[ciphertext-only attack|ciphertext-only scenario]]. Two situations can be considered:
# an attacker knows (or guesses) that some sort of simple substitution cipher has been used, but not specifically that it is a Caesar scheme;
# an attacker knows that a Caesar cipher is in use, but does not know the shift value.


The effect of stress in the fluid is represented by the <math>\nabla p</math> and <math>\nabla \cdot\boldsymbol \tau</math> terms; these are [[gradient]]s of surface forces, analogous to stresses in a solid. Here <math>\nabla p</math> is called the pressure gradient and arises from the isotropic part of the [[Cauchy stress tensor]], which has order two. This part is given by [[normal stress]]es that turn up in almost all situations, dynamic or not. The anisotropic part of the stress tensor gives rise to <math>\nabla \cdot\boldsymbol \tau</math>, which conventionally describes viscous forces; for incompressible flow, this is only a shear effect. Thus, <math>\boldsymbol \tau</math> is the [[deviatoric stress tensor]], and the stress tensor is equal to:<ref>Batchelor (1967) p. 142.</ref>
In the first case, the cipher can be broken using the same techniques as for a general simple substitution cipher, such as [[frequency analysis]] or [[pattern word]]s.<ref>{{cite book |title=Cryptology |last=Beutelspacher |first=Albrecht |authorlink=Albrecht Beutelspacher |year=1994 |publisher=[[Mathematical Association of America]] |isbn=0-88385-504-6 |pages=9–11 }}</ref> While solving, it is likely that an attacker will quickly notice the regularity in the solution and deduce that a Caesar cipher is the specific algorithm employed.


:<math>\boldsymbol \sigma = - p \mathbf 1+ \boldsymbol \tau</math>
[[Image:English-slf.png|left|320px|thumbnail|The distribution of letters in a typical sample of English language text has a distinctive and predictable shape. A Caesar shift "rotates" this distribution, and it is possible to determine the shift by examining the resultant frequency graph.]]
In the second instance, breaking the scheme is even more straightforward. Since there are only a limited number of possible shifts (26 in English), they can each be tested in turn in a [[brute force attack]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Cryptology |last=Beutelspacher |first=Albrecht |authorlink=Albrecht Beutelspacher |year=1994 |publisher=[[Mathematical Association of America]] |isbn=0-88385-504-6 |pages=8–9 }}</ref> One way to do this is to write out a snippet of the ciphertext in a table of all possible shifts<ref>{{cite journal |last=Leighton |first=Albert C. |year=1969 |month=April |title=Secret Communication among the Greeks and Romans |journal=Technology and Culture |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=139–154 |doi=10.2307/3101474 |jstor=3101474 }}</ref> — a technique sometimes known as "completing the plain component".<ref>{{cite book |title=Elementary Cryptanalysis: A Mathematical Approach |last=Sinkov |first=Abraham |authorlink=Abraham Sinkov |coauthors=Paul L. Irwin |year=1966 |publisher=Mathematical Association of America |isbn=0-88385-622-0 |pages=13–15 }}</ref> The example given is for the ciphertext "<tt>EXXEGOEXSRGI</tt>"; the plaintext is instantly recognisable by eye at a shift of four. Another way of viewing this method is that, under each letter of the ciphertext, the entire alphabet is written out in reverse starting at that letter. This attack can be accelerated using a set of strips prepared with the alphabet written down them in reverse order. The strips are then aligned to form the ciphertext along one row, and the plaintext should appear in one of the other rows.


where <math>\mathbf 1</math> is the 3×3 [[identity matrix]]. In the Navier–Stokes equations, only the ''gradient'' of pressure matters, not the pressure itself. The effect of the pressure gradient on the flow is to accelerate the fluid in the direction from high pressure to low pressure.
Another brute force approach is to match up the frequency distribution of the letters. By graphing the frequencies of letters in the ciphertext, and by knowing the expected distribution of those letters in the original language of the plaintext, a human can easily spot the value of the shift by looking at the displacement of particular features of the graph. This is known as [[frequency analysis]]. For example in the English language the plaintext frequencies of the letters <tt>E</tt>, <tt>T</tt>, (usually most frequent), and <tt>Q</tt>, <tt>Z</tt> (typically least frequent) are particularly distinctive.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Code Book |last=Singh |first=Simon |authorlink=Simon Singh |year=2000 |publisher=Anchor |isbn=0-385-49532-3 |pages=72–77}}</ref> Computers can also do this by measuring how well the actual frequency distribution matches up with the expected distribution; for example, the [[chi-squared statistic]] can be used.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://starbase.trincoll.edu/~crypto/historical/caesar.html |title=The Caesar Cipher |accessdate=2008-07-16 |last=Savarese |first=Chris |coauthors=Brian Hart |date=2002-07-15 }}</ref>


The stress terms ''p'' and <math>\boldsymbol \tau</math> are yet unknown, so the general form of the equations of motion is not usable to solve problems. Besides the equations of motion—Newton's second law—a force model is needed relating the stresses to the fluid motion.<ref>
For natural language plaintext, there will, in all likelihood, be only one plausible decryption, although for extremely short plaintexts, multiple candidates are possible. For example, the ciphertext <tt>MPQY</tt> could, plausibly, decrypt to either "<tt>[[aden]]</tt>" or "<tt>know</tt>" (assuming the plaintext is in English); similarly, "<tt>ALIIP</tt>" to "<tt>dolls</tt>" or "<tt>wheel</tt>"; and "<tt>AFCCP</tt>" to "<tt>jolly</tt>" or "<tt>cheer</tt>" (see also [[unicity distance]]).
{{citation
| first1=Richard P.
| last=Feynman
| authorlink1=R. P. Feynman
| first2=Robert B.
| last2=Leighton
| authorlink2=R. B. Leighton
| first3=Matthew
| last3=Sands
| authorlink3=M. Sands
| year=1963
| title=[[The Feynman Lectures on Physics]]
| isbn=0-201-02116-1
| publisher=Addison-Wesley
| location=Reading, Massachusetts
}}, Vol. 1, §9–4 and §12–1.</ref> For this reason, assumptions based on natural observations are often applied to specify the stresses in terms of the other flow variables, such as velocity and density.


The Navier–Stokes equations result from the following assumptions on the deviatoric stress tensor <math>\boldsymbol \tau</math>:<ref name=Batchelor_142_148>Batchelor (1967) pp. 142–148.</ref>
Multiple encryptions and decryptions provide no additional security. This is because two encryptions of, say, shift ''A'' and shift ''B'', will be equivalent to an encryption with shift ''A'' + ''B''. In mathematical terms, the encryption under various keys forms a [[group (mathematics)|group]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Cryptology Unlocked |last=Wobst |first=Reinhard |year=2001 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-470-06064-3 |pages=31}}</ref>


*the deviatoric stress vanishes for a fluid at rest, and, by [[Galilean invariance]], also does not depend directly on the flow velocity, but only on spatial derivatives of the flow velocity
==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}


*the deviatoric stress is expressed as the [[Dyadics#Double-dot product|double-dot product]] of the tensor gradient <math>\nabla\mathbf{u}</math> of the flow velocity with, a fourth-order viscosity tensor <math>\mathbf V</math>, i.e., <math>\boldsymbol \tau = \mathbf V :\left( \nabla\mathbf{u} \right)</math>
==Bibliography==
* [[David Kahn (writer)|David Kahn]], ''The Codebreakers — The Story of Secret Writing,'' Revised ed. 1996. ISBN 0-684-83130-9.
* [[F.L. Bauer]], ''Decrypted Secrets,'' 2nd edition, 2000, Springer. ISBN 3-540-66871-3.
*  Chris Savarese and Brian Hart, ''[http://starbase.trincoll.edu/~crypto/historical/caesar.html The Caesar Cipher]'', 1999


*the fluid is assumed to be [[isotropic]], as with gases and simple liquids, and consequently <math>\mathbf  V</math> is an isotropic tensor; furthermore, since the deviatoric stress tensor is symmetric, it can be expressed in terms of two scalar [[dynamic viscosity|dynamic viscosities]] ''μ'' and ''μ''": <math>\boldsymbol \tau = 2 \mu \boldsymbol \varepsilon + \mu'' \mathbf 1 \, \nabla\cdot\mathbf{u} ,</math> where <math>\boldsymbol \varepsilon=\tfrac12 \left( \nabla\mathbf{u} \right) + \tfrac12 \left( \nabla\mathbf{u} \right)^\text{T}</math> is the rate-of-[[strain tensor]] and <math>\nabla\cdot\mathbf{u}</math> is the rate of expansion of the flow
==External links==
 
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Caesar_cipher.ogg|2005-04-14}}
*the deviatoric stress tensor has zero [[trace (linear algebra)|trace]], so for a three-dimensional flow 2''μ''&nbsp;+&nbsp;3''μ''"&nbsp;=&nbsp;0
* {{MathWorld | urlname=CaesarsMethod | title=Caesar's Method}}
 
* {{Citation | url = http://www.murky.org/blg/2004/09/02/the-caesar-shift/ | contribution = The Caesar Shift | title = [http://www.murky.org/blg/category/cryptography/ The Beginner's Guide to Cryptography | publisher = Murky | date = 2004-9-2}}.
As a result, the deviatoric stress tensor has the following form:<ref name=Batchelor_142_148/>
* {{Citation | url = http://www.xarg.org/2010/05/cracking-a-caesar-cipher/ | contribution = Cracking a Caesar cipher | year = 2010 | month = 5 | title = Xarg}} — a simple approach.
 
{{Cryptography navbox | classical}}
:<math>\boldsymbol \tau = 2 \mu \left( \boldsymbol \varepsilon - \tfrac13 \mathbf 1 \, \nabla\cdot\mathbf{u}\right)</math>
 
with the quantity between brackets being the non-isotropic part of the rate-of-strain tensor <math>\boldsymbol \varepsilon.</math> The dynamic viscosity ''μ'' need not be constant – in general, it depends on conditions like temperature and pressure, and, in [[turbulence]] modeling, [[eddy viscosity]] approximates the average deviatoric stress.
 
The pressure ''p'' is modeled by an [[equation of state]].<ref>Batchelor (1967) p. 165.</ref> For the special case of an [[incompressible flow]], the pressure constrains the flow so that the volume of [[fluid element]]s is constant: [[isochoric process|isochoric flow]] resulting in a [[solenoidal]] velocity field with <math>\nabla\cdot\mathbf{u}=0.</math><ref>Batchelor (1967) p. 75.</ref>
 
===Other forces===
The vector field <math>\mathbf{f}</math> represents [[body force]]s. Typically, these consist of only [[gravity]] forces, but may include others, such as electromagnetic forces. In non-inertial coordinate frames, other "forces" associated with [[Fictitious force|rotating coordinates]] may arise.
 
Often, these forces may be represented as the gradient of some scalar quantity <math>\chi \,</math>, with <math> \mathbf{f} = \nabla \chi ,</math> in which case they are called [[conservative force]]s. Gravity in the ''z'' direction, for example, is the gradient of <math>-\rho g z</math>. Because pressure from such gravitation arises only as a gradient, we may include it in the pressure term as a body force <math> h = p - \chi. </math>  The pressure and force terms on the right-hand side of the Navier–Stokes equation become
 
:<math>-\nabla p + \mathbf{f} = -\nabla p + \nabla \chi = -\nabla \left( p - \chi \right) = -\nabla h.</math>
 
===Other equations===
The Navier–Stokes equations are strictly a statement of the conservation of momentum. To fully describe fluid flow, more information is needed, how much depending on the assumptions made. This additional information may include boundary data ([[no-slip condition|no-slip]], [[capillary surface]], etc.), conservation of mass, conservation of energy, and/or an [[equation of state]].
 
====Continuity equation====
{{main|Continuity equation}}
 
Regardless of the flow assumptions, a statement of the [[conservation of mass]] is generally necessary. This is achieved through the mass [[continuity equation]], given in its most general form as:
 
:<math>\frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t} + \nabla \cdot (\rho \mathbf{u}) = 0</math>
 
or, using the [[substantive derivative]]:
 
:<math>\frac{D\rho}{Dt} + \rho (\nabla \cdot \mathbf{u}) = 0.</math>
 
==Incompressible flow of Newtonian fluids==
 
The equations are simplified in the case of [[incompressible flow]] of a [[Newtonian fluid]]. Incompressibility rules out sound propagation or [[shock wave]]s, so this simplification is not useful if these phenomena are of interest. The incompressible flow assumption typically holds well even with a "compressible" fluid — such as air at room temperature — at low [[Mach number]]s up to about Mach 0.3. With incompressible flow and constant viscosity, the Navier–Stokes equations read<ref name="Ach">See Acheson (1990).</ref>
 
{{Equation box 1
|indent=:
|title='''[[Incompressible flow|Incompressible]] Navier–Stokes equations'''
|equation=<math>\rho \left(\frac{\partial \mathbf{u}}{\partial t} + \mathbf{u} \cdot \nabla \mathbf{u}\right) = -\nabla p + \mu \nabla^2 \mathbf{u} + \mathbf{f}.</math>
|cellpadding
|border
|border colour = #0073CF
|background colour=#F5FFFA}}
 
in tensor notation:
 
{{Equation box 1
|indent=:
|title='''[[Incompressible flow|Incompressible]] Navier–Stokes equations'''
|equation=<math>\rho\left(\frac{\partial u_i}{\partial t}+u_j\frac{\partial u_i}{\partial x_j} \right)=-\frac{\partial p}{\partial x_i}+\mu\frac{\partial^2 u_i}{\partial x_j\partial x_j}+f_i </math>
|cellpadding
|border
|border colour = #0073CF
|background colour=#F5FFFA}}
 
Here '''f''' represents "other" [[body force]]s (per unit volume), such as [[gravity]] or [[centrifugal force]]. The [[shear stress]] term <math>\nabla \cdot \boldsymbol{\mathsf{T}}</math> becomes <math>\mu \nabla^2 \mathbf{u}</math>, where <math>\nabla^2</math> is the [[vector Laplacian]].<ref>Batchelor (1967) pp. 21 & 147.</ref>
 
It's well worth observing the meaning of each term (compare to the [[Cauchy momentum equation]]):
 
:<math>
\overbrace{\rho \Big(
\underbrace{\frac{\partial \mathbf{u}}{\partial t}}_{
\begin{smallmatrix}
  \text{Unsteady}\\
  \text{acceleration}
\end{smallmatrix}} +
\underbrace{\mathbf{u} \cdot \nabla \mathbf{u}}_{
\begin{smallmatrix}
  \text{Convective} \\
  \text{acceleration}
\end{smallmatrix}}\Big)}^{\text{Inertia (per volume)}} =
\overbrace{\underbrace{-\nabla p}_{
\begin{smallmatrix}
  \text{Pressure} \\
  \text{gradient}
\end{smallmatrix}} +
\underbrace{\mu \nabla^2 \mathbf{u}}_{\text{Viscosity}}}^{\text{Divergence of stress}} +
\underbrace{\mathbf{f}.}_{
\begin{smallmatrix}
  \text{Other} \\
  \text{body} \\
  \text{forces}
\end{smallmatrix}}
</math>
 
Only the convective terms are nonlinear for incompressible Newtonian flow. Convective acceleration is caused by a (possibly steady) change in velocity over ''position'', for example, by the speeding up of fluid entering a converging [[nozzle]]. Though individual fluid particles are accelerated and thus under unsteady motion, the flow field, a velocity distribution, will not necessarily be time-dependent.
 
Another important observation is that viscosity is represented by the [[vector Laplacian]] of the velocity field, interpreted here as the difference between the velocity at a point and the mean velocity in a small surrounding volume. This implies that – for a Newtonian fluid – viscosity operates as a ''diffusion of momentum'', in much the same way as the [[diffusion]] of heat in the [[heat equation]],  also expressed with the Laplacian.
 
If temperature effects are also neglected, the only "other" equation (apart from initial/boundary conditions) needed is the mass continuity equation. Under the assumption of incompressibility, the density of a [[fluid particle]] is constant, and when using the substantive derivative [[Incompressible_flow#Derivation|it follows easily]] that the [[Navier–Stokes equations#Continuity equation|continuity equation]] simplifies to:
 
:<math>\nabla \cdot \mathbf{u} = 0.</math>
 
This is more specifically a statement of the conservation of volume (see [[divergence]] and [[isochoric process]]).
 
These equations are commonly used in 3 coordinates systems: [[Cartesian coordinate system|Cartesian]], [[Cylindrical coordinate system|cylindrical]], and [[Spherical coordinate system|spherical]]. While the Cartesian equations seem to follow directly from the vector equation above, the vector form of the  Navier–Stokes equation involves some [[tensor calculus]] which means that writing it in other coordinate systems is not as simple as doing so for scalar equations (such as the [[heat equation]]).
 
==3D representations==
===Cartesian coordinates===
From the general form of the Navier-Stokes, with the velocity vector expanded as <math>\mathbf{u} = (u_x,u_y,u_z)</math> (sometimes respectively named ''u'', ''v'', ''w''), we may write the vector equation explicitly,
 
:<math>\begin{align}
  \rho \left(\frac{\partial u_x}{\partial t} + u_x \frac{\partial u_x}{\partial x} + u_y \frac{\partial u_x}{\partial y} + u_z \frac{\partial u_x}{\partial z}\right)
    &= -\frac{\partial p}{\partial x} + \mu \left(\frac{\partial^2 u_x}{\partial x^2} + \frac{\partial^2 u_x}{\partial y^2} + \frac{\partial^2 u_x}{\partial z^2}\right) - \mu \frac{\partial}{\partial x} \left( \frac{\partial u_x}{\partial x} + \frac{\partial u_y}{\partial y} + \frac{\partial u_z}{\partial z} \right) + \rho g_x \\
  \rho \left(\frac{\partial u_y}{\partial t} + u_x \frac{\partial u_y}{\partial x} + u_y \frac{\partial u_y}{\partial y}+ u_z \frac{\partial u_y}{\partial z}\right)
    &= -\frac{\partial p}{\partial y} + \mu \left(\frac{\partial^2 u_y}{\partial x^2} + \frac{\partial^2 u_y}{\partial y^2} + \frac{\partial^2 u_y}{\partial z^2}\right) - \mu \frac{\partial}{\partial y} \left( \frac{\partial u_x}{\partial x} + \frac{\partial u_y}{\partial y} + \frac{\partial u_z}{\partial z} \right) + \rho g_y \\
  \rho \left(\frac{\partial u_z}{\partial t} + u_x \frac{\partial u_z}{\partial x} + u_y \frac{\partial u_z}{\partial y}+ u_z \frac{\partial u_z}{\partial z}\right)
    &= -\frac{\partial p}{\partial z} + \mu \left(\frac{\partial^2 u_z}{\partial x^2} + \frac{\partial^2 u_z}{\partial y^2} + \frac{\partial^2 u_z}{\partial z^2}\right) - \mu \frac{\partial}{\partial z} \left( \frac{\partial u_x}{\partial x} + \frac{\partial u_y}{\partial y} + \frac{\partial u_z}{\partial z} \right) + \rho g_z.
\end{align}</math>
 
Note that gravity has been accounted for as a body force, and the values of ''g<sub>x</sub>'', ''g<sub>y</sub>'', ''g<sub>z</sub>'' will depend on the orientation of gravity with respect to the chosen set of coordinates.
 
The continuity equation reads:
:<math>{\partial \rho \over \partial t} + {\partial (\rho u_x ) \over \partial x} + {\partial (\rho u_y) \over \partial y} + {\partial (\rho u_z) \over \partial z} = 0.</math>
 
When the flow is incompressible, <math>\rho</math> does not change for any fluid particle, and its [[material derivative]] vanishes: <math>{D\rho \over Dt} = 0</math>. The continuity equation is reduced to:


:<math>{\partial u_x \over \partial x} + {\partial u_y \over \partial y} + {\partial u_z \over \partial z} = 0.</math>
[[Category:Julius Caesar]]
[[Category:Classical ciphers]]
[[Category:Group theory]]


Thus, for the incompressible version of the Navier-Stokes equation the second part of the viscous terms fall away (see [[Incompressible flow]]).
{{Link GA|es}}
 
{{Link GA|fr}}
This system of four equations comprises the most commonly used and studied form. Though comparatively more compact than other representations, this is still a [[nonlinear]] system of [[partial differential equations]] for which solutions are difficult to obtain.
{{Link FA|ca}}
 
{{Link FA|pl}}
===Cylindrical coordinates===
{{Link FA|pt}}
A change of variables on the Cartesian equations will yield<ref name="Ach"/> the following momentum equations for ''r'', <math>\phi</math>, and ''z'':
{{Link FA|ro}}
 
 
:<math>\begin{align}
  r:\ &\rho \left(\frac{\partial u_r}{\partial t} + u_r \frac{\partial u_r}{\partial r} +
                  \frac{u_{\phi}}{r} \frac{\partial u_r}{\partial \phi} + u_z \frac{\partial u_r}{\partial z} - \frac{u_{\phi}^2}{r}\right) = {}\\
      &-\frac{\partial p}{\partial r} + \mu \left[\frac{1}{r}\frac{\partial}{\partial r}\left(r \frac{\partial u_r}{\partial r}\right) +
        \frac{1}{r^2}\frac{\partial^2 u_r}{\partial \phi^2} + \frac{\partial^2 u_r}{\partial z^2} - \frac{u_r}{r^2} -
        \frac{2}{r^2}\frac{\partial u_\phi}{\partial \phi} \right] + \rho g_r \\
  \phi:\ &\rho \left(\frac{\partial u_{\phi}}{\partial t} + u_r \frac{\partial u_{\phi}}{\partial r} +
                      \frac{u_{\phi}}{r} \frac{\partial u_{\phi}}{\partial \phi} + u_z \frac{\partial u_{\phi}}{\partial z} + \frac{u_r u_{\phi}}{r}\right) = {}\\
        &-\frac{1}{r}\frac{\partial p}{\partial \phi} + \mu \left[\frac{1}{r}\frac{\partial}{\partial r}\left(r \frac{\partial u_{\phi}}{\partial r}\right) +
          \frac{1}{r^2}\frac{\partial^2 u_{\phi}}{\partial \phi^2} + \frac{\partial^2 u_{\phi}}{\partial z^2} + \frac{2}{r^2}\frac{\partial u_r}{\partial \phi}-\frac{u_{\phi}}{r^2}\right] + \rho g_{\phi} \\
  z:\ &\rho \left(\frac{\partial u_z}{\partial t} + u_r \frac{\partial u_z}{\partial r} + \frac{u_{\phi}}{r} \frac{\partial u_z}{\partial \phi} +
              u_z \frac{\partial u_z}{\partial z}\right) = {}\\
      &-\frac{\partial p}{\partial z} + \mu \left[\frac{1}{r}\frac{\partial}{\partial r}\left(r \frac{\partial u_z}{\partial r}\right) +
        \frac{1}{r^2}\frac{\partial^2 u_z}{\partial \phi^2} + \frac{\partial^2 u_z}{\partial z^2}\right] + \rho g_z.
\end{align}</math>
 
The gravity components will generally not be constants, however for most applications either the coordinates are chosen so that the gravity components are constant or else it is assumed that gravity is counteracted by a pressure field (for example, flow in horizontal pipe is treated normally without gravity and without a vertical pressure gradient). The continuity equation is:
 
:<math>
  \frac{\partial\rho}{\partial t} + \frac{1}{r}\frac{\partial}{\partial r}\left(\rho r u_r\right) +
  \frac{1}{r}\frac{\partial (\rho u_\phi)}{\partial \phi} + \frac{\partial (\rho u_z)}{\partial z}
    = 0.
</math>
 
This cylindrical representation of the incompressible Navier–Stokes equations is the second most commonly seen (the first being Cartesian above). Cylindrical coordinates are chosen to take advantage of symmetry, so that a velocity component can disappear. A very common case is axisymmetric flow with the assumption of no tangential velocity (<math>u_{\phi} = 0</math>), and the remaining quantities are independent of <math>\phi</math>:
 
:<math>\begin{align}
  \rho \left(\frac{\partial u_r}{\partial t} + u_r \frac{\partial u_r}{\partial r} + u_z \frac{\partial u_r}{\partial z}\right)
    &= -\frac{\partial p}{\partial r} + \mu \left[\frac{1}{r}\frac{\partial}{\partial r}\left(r \frac{\partial u_r}{\partial r}\right) +
      \frac{\partial^2 u_r}{\partial z^2} - \frac{u_r}{r^2}\right] + \rho g_r \\
  \rho \left(\frac{\partial u_z}{\partial t} + u_r \frac{\partial u_z}{\partial r} + u_z \frac{\partial u_z}{\partial z}\right)
    &= -\frac{\partial p}{\partial z} + \mu \left[\frac{1}{r}\frac{\partial}{\partial r}\left(r \frac{\partial u_z}{\partial r}\right) +
      \frac{\partial^2 u_z}{\partial z^2}\right] + \rho g_z \\
  \frac{1}{r}\frac{\partial}{\partial r}\left(r u_r\right) + \frac{\partial u_z}{\partial z} &= 0.
\end{align}</math>
 
===Spherical coordinates===
In [[spherical coordinates]], the ''r'', ''ϕ'', and ''θ'' momentum equations are<ref name="Ach"/> (note the convention used: ''θ'' is polar angle, or [[colatitude]],<ref>{{Citation
| url = http://mathworld.wolfram.com/SphericalCoordinates.html
| title = Spherical Coordinates
| author = [[Eric W. Weisstein]]
| publisher = [[MathWorld]]
| date = 2005-10-26
| accessdate = 2008-01-22
}}</ref> 0 ≤ ''θ'' ≤ π):
:<math>\begin{align}
  r:\  &\rho \left(\frac{\partial u_r}{\partial t} + u_r \frac{\partial u_r}{\partial r} + \frac{u_{\phi}}{r \sin(\theta)} \frac{\partial u_r}{\partial \phi} +
                  \frac{u_{\theta}}{r} \frac{\partial u_r}{\partial \theta} - \frac{u_{\phi}^2 + u_{\theta}^2}{r}\right) =
          -\frac{\partial p}{\partial r} + \rho g_r + \\
      &\mu \left[\frac{1}{r^2} \frac{\partial}{\partial r}\left(r^2 \frac{\partial u_r}{\partial r}\right) +
                  \frac{1}{r^2 \sin(\theta)^2} \frac{\partial^2 u_r}{\partial \phi^2} +
                  \frac{1}{r^2 \sin(\theta)} \frac{\partial}{\partial \theta}\left(\sin(\theta) \frac{\partial u_r}{\partial \theta}\right) - 2\frac{u_r +
                  \frac{\partial u_{\theta}}{\partial \theta} + u_{\theta} \cot(\theta)}{r^2} - \frac{2}{r^2 \sin(\theta)} \frac{\partial u_{\phi}}{\partial \phi}
            \right] \\
 
  \phi:\  &\rho \left(\frac{\partial u_{\phi}}{\partial t} + u_r \frac{\partial u_{\phi}}{\partial r} +
                      \frac{u_{\phi}}{r \sin(\theta)} \frac{\partial u_{\phi}}{\partial \phi} + \frac{u_{\theta}}{r} \frac{\partial u_{\phi}}{\partial \theta} +
                      \frac{u_r u_{\phi} + u_{\phi} u_{\theta} \cot(\theta)}{r}\right) =
              -\frac{1}{r \sin(\theta)} \frac{\partial p}{\partial \phi} + \rho g_{\phi} + \\
          &\mu \left[\frac{1}{r^2} \frac{\partial}{\partial r}\left(r^2 \frac{\partial u_{\phi}}{\partial r}\right) +
                    \frac{1}{r^2 \sin(\theta)^2} \frac{\partial^2 u_{\phi}}{\partial \phi^2} +
                    \frac{1}{r^2 \sin(\theta)} \frac{\partial}{\partial \theta}\left(\sin(\theta) \frac{\partial u_{\phi}}{\partial \theta}\right) +
                    \frac{2 \sin(\theta) \frac{\partial u_r}{\partial \phi} + 2 \cos(\theta) \frac{\partial u_{\theta}}{\partial \phi} -
                    u_{\phi}}{r^2 \sin(\theta)^2}
              \right] \\
 
  \theta:\  &\rho \left(\frac{\partial u_{\theta}}{\partial t} + u_r \frac{\partial u_{\theta}}{\partial r} +
                        \frac{u_{\phi}}{r \sin(\theta)} \frac{\partial u_{\theta}}{\partial \phi} +
                        \frac{u_{\theta}}{r} \frac{\partial u_{\theta}}{\partial \theta} + \frac{u_r u_{\theta} - u_{\phi}^2 \cot(\theta)}{r}\right) =
                -\frac{1}{r} \frac{\partial p}{\partial \theta} + \rho g_{\theta} + \\
            &\mu \left[\frac{1}{r^2} \frac{\partial}{\partial r}\left(r^2 \frac{\partial u_{\theta}}{\partial r}\right) +
                      \frac{1}{r^2 \sin(\theta)^2} \frac{\partial^2 u_{\theta}}{\partial \phi^2} +
                      \frac{1}{r^2 \sin(\theta)} \frac{\partial}{\partial \theta}\left(\sin(\theta) \frac{\partial u_{\theta}}{\partial \theta}\right) +
                      \frac{2}{r^2} \frac{\partial u_r}{\partial \theta} - \frac{u_{\theta} +
                      2 \cos(\theta) \frac{\partial u_{\phi}}{\partial \phi}}{r^2 \sin(\theta)^2}
                \right].
\end{align}</math>
 
Mass continuity will read:
 
:<math>
  \frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t} + \frac{1}{r^2}\frac{\partial}{\partial r}\left(\rho r^2 u_r\right) +
  \frac{1}{r \sin(\theta)}\frac{\partial \rho u_\phi}{\partial \phi} +
  \frac{1}{r \sin(\theta)}\frac{\partial}{\partial \theta}\left(\sin(\theta) \rho u_\theta\right)
    = 0.
</math>
 
These equations could be (slightly) compacted by, for example, factoring <math>1/r^2</math> from the viscous terms. However, doing so would undesirably alter the structure of the Laplacian and other quantities.
 
==Stream function formulation==
Taking the [[Curl (mathematics)|curl]] of the Navier–Stokes equation results in the elimination of pressure. This is especially easy to see if 2D Cartesian flow is assumed (like in the degenerate 3D case with <math>u_z = 0</math> and no dependence of anything on ''z''), where the equations reduce to:
 
:<math>\begin{align}
  \rho \left(\frac{\partial u_x}{\partial t} + u_x \frac{\partial u_x}{\partial x} + u_y \frac{\partial u_x}{\partial y}\right)
    &= -\frac{\partial p}{\partial x} + \mu \left(\frac{\partial^2 u_x}{\partial x^2} + \frac{\partial^2 u_x}{\partial y^2}\right) + \rho g_x \\
  \rho \left(\frac{\partial u_y}{\partial t} + u_x \frac{\partial u_y}{\partial x} + u_y \frac{\partial u_y}{\partial y}\right)
    &= -\frac{\partial p}{\partial y} + \mu \left(\frac{\partial^2 u_y}{\partial x^2} + \frac{\partial^2 u_y}{\partial y^2}\right) + \rho g_y.
\end{align}</math>
 
Differentiating the first with respect to ''y'', the second with respect to ''x'' and subtracting the resulting equations will eliminate pressure and any [[conservative force]]. Defining the [[stream function]] <math>\psi</math> through
 
:<math>u_x = \frac{\partial \psi}{\partial y}; \quad u_y = -\frac{\partial \psi}{\partial x}</math>
 
results in mass continuity being unconditionally satisfied (given the stream function is continuous), and then incompressible Newtonian 2D momentum and mass conservation condense into one equation:
 
:<math>\frac{\partial}{\partial t}\left(\nabla^2 \psi\right) + \frac{\partial \psi}{\partial y} \frac{\partial}{\partial x}\left(\nabla^2 \psi\right) - \frac{\partial \psi}{\partial x} \frac{\partial}{\partial y}\left(\nabla^2 \psi\right) = \nu \nabla^4 \psi</math>
 
where <math>\nabla^4</math> is the (2D) [[biharmonic operator]] and <math>\nu</math> is the [[kinematic viscosity]], <math>\nu = \frac{\mu}{\rho}</math>. We can also express this compactly using the [[Jacobian matrix and determinant|Jacobian determinant]]:
 
:<math>\frac{\partial}{\partial t}\left(\nabla^2 \psi\right) + \frac{\partial\left(\psi, \nabla^2\psi \right)}{\partial\left(y,x\right)} = \nu \nabla^4 \psi.</math>
 
This single equation together with appropriate boundary conditions describes 2D fluid flow, taking only kinematic viscosity as a parameter. Note that the equation for [[creeping flow]] results when the left side is assumed zero.
 
In [[axisymmetric]] flow another stream function formulation, called the [[Stokes stream function]], can be used to describe the velocity components of an incompressible flow with one [[scalar (mathematics)|scalar]] function.
 
===Pressure-free velocity formulation===
The incompressible Navier–Stokes equation is a [[differential algebraic equation]], having the inconvenient feature that there is no explicit mechanism for advancing the pressure in time. Consequently, much effort has been expended to eliminate the pressure from all or part of the computational process. The stream function formulation above eliminates the pressure (in 2D) at the expense of introducing higher derivatives and elimination of the velocity, which is the primary variable of interest.
 
The incompressible Navier–Stokes equation is composite, the sum of two orthogonal equations,
:<math>\begin{align}
  \frac{\partial\mathbf{u}}{\partial t} &= \Pi^S\left(-\mathbf{u}\cdot\nabla\mathbf{u} + \nu\nabla^2\mathbf{u}\right) + \mathbf{f}^S \\
                      \rho^{-1}\nabla p &= \Pi^I\left(-\mathbf{u}\cdot\nabla\mathbf{u} + \nu\nabla^2\mathbf{u}\right) + \mathbf{f}^I
\end{align}</math>
 
where <math>\Pi^S</math> and <math>\Pi^I</math> are solenoidal and irrotational projection operators satisfying <math>\Pi^S+\Pi^I=1</math> and
<math>\mathbf{f}^S</math> and <math>\mathbf{f}^I</math> are the non-conservative and conservative parts of the body force. This result follows from the [[Helmholtz decomposition|Helmholtz Theorem]] (also known as the fundamental theorem of vector calculus). The first equation is a pressureless governing equation for the velocity, while the second equation for the pressure is a functional of the velocity and is related to the pressure Poisson equation.
 
The explicit functional form of the projection operator in 3D is found from the Helmholtz Theorem
:<math>\Pi^S\,\mathbf{F}(\mathbf{r}) = \frac{1}{4\pi}\nabla\times\int \frac{\nabla^\prime\times\mathbf{F}(\mathbf{r}^\prime)}{|\mathbf{r}-\mathbf{r}^\prime|} d V^\prime, \quad \Pi^I = 1-\Pi^S</math>
 
with a similar structure in 2D. Thus the governing equation is an [[integro-differential equation]] and not convenient for numerical computation.
 
An equivalent weak or variational form of the equation, proved to produce the same velocity solution as the Navier–Stokes equation,<ref>
{{citation
| last = Temam  | first = Roger
| author-link = Roger Temam
| title = Navier–Stokes Equations, Theory and Numerical Analysis
| pages = 107–112
| year = 2001  |  publisher = AMS Chelsea
}}</ref> is given by,
:<math>\left(\mathbf{w},\frac{\partial\mathbf{u}}{\partial t}\right) = -(\mathbf{w},\mathbf{u}\cdot\nabla\mathbf{u})-\nu(\nabla\mathbf{w}: \nabla\mathbf{u})+(\mathbf{w},\mathbf{f}^S)</math>
 
for divergence-free test functions <math>\mathbf{w}</math> satisfying appropriate boundary conditions. Here, the projections are accomplished by the orthogonality of the solenoidal and irrotational function spaces. The discrete form of this is imminently suited to finite element computation of divergence-free flow, as we shall see in the next section. There we will be able to address the question, "How does one specify pressure-driven (Poiseuille) problems with a pressureless governing equation?"
 
The absence of pressure forces from the governing velocity equation demonstrates that the equation is not a dynamic one, but rather a kinematic equation where the divergence-free condition serves the role of a conservation law. This all would seem to refute the frequent statements that the incompressible pressure enforces the divergence-free condition.
 
====Discrete velocity====
With partitioning of the problem domain and defining [[basis function]]s on the partitioned domain, the discrete form of the governing equation is,
:<math>\left(\mathbf{w}_i, \frac{\partial\mathbf{u}_j}{\partial t}\right) = -(\mathbf{w}_i, \mathbf{u}\cdot\nabla\mathbf{u}_j) - \nu(\nabla\mathbf{w}_i: \nabla\mathbf{u}_j) + \left(\mathbf{w}_i, \mathbf{f}^S\right).</math>
 
It is desirable to choose basis functions which reflect the essential feature of incompressible flow – the elements must be divergence-free. While the velocity is the variable of interest, the existence of the stream function or vector potential is necessary by the Helmholtz Theorem. Further, to determine fluid flow in the absence of a pressure gradient, one can specify the difference of stream function values across a 2D channel, or the line integral of the tangential component of the vector potential around the channel in 3D, the flow being given by [[Stokes' Theorem]]. Discussion will be restricted to 2D in the following.
 
We further restrict discussion to continuous Hermite finite elements which have at least first-derivative degrees-of-freedom. With this, one can draw a large number of candidate triangular and rectangular elements from the [[Bending of plates|plate-bending]] literature.
These elements have derivatives as components of the gradient. In 2D, the gradient and curl of a scalar are clearly orthogonal, given by the expressions,
:<math>\nabla\phi = \left[\frac{\partial \phi}{\partial x},\,\frac{\partial \phi}{\partial y}\right]^\mathrm{T}, \quad
\nabla\times\phi = \left[\frac{\partial \phi}{\partial y},\,-\frac{\partial \phi}{\partial x}\right]^\mathrm{T}.</math>
 
Adopting continuous plate-bending elements, interchanging the derivative degrees-of-freedom and changing the sign of the appropriate one gives many families of stream function elements.
 
Taking the curl of the scalar stream function elements gives divergence-free velocity elements.<ref>
{{Citation
  | last = Holdeman  | first = J.T.
  | author-link = J.T. Holdeman
  | title = A Hermite finite element method for incompressible fluid flow
  | journal = Int. J. Numer. Meth. FLuids
  | volume = 64  | pages = 376–408  | year = 2010
  | doi = 10.1002/fld.2154
  | issue = 4 |bibcode = 2010IJNMF..64..376H
}}</ref><ref>
{{Citation
  | last = Holdeman  | first = J.T.
  | author-link = J.T. Holdeman
  | last2 = Kim  | first2 = J.W.
  | title = Computation of incompressible thermal flows using Hermite finite elements
  | journal = Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg.
  | volume = 199  | pages = 3297–3304  | year = 2010
  | authorlink2 = Jin-Whan Kim
  | doi = 10.1016/j.cma.2010.06.036
  | issue = 49–52 |bibcode = 2010CMAME.199.3297H
}}</ref> The requirement that the stream function elements be continuous assures that the normal component of the velocity is continuous across element interfaces, all that is necessary for vanishing divergence on these interfaces.
 
Boundary conditions are simple to apply. The stream function is constant on no-flow surfaces, with no-slip velocity conditions on surfaces.
Stream function differences across open channels determine the flow. No boundary conditions are necessary on open boundaries, though consistent values may be used with some problems. These are all Dirichlet conditions.
 
The algebraic equations to be solved are simple to set up, but of course are [[#Nonlinearity|non-linear]], requiring iteration of the linearized equations.
 
Similar considerations apply to three-dimensions, but extension from 2D is not immediate because of the vector nature of the potential, and there exists no simple relation between the gradient and the curl as was the case in 2D.
 
====Pressure recovery====
Recovering pressure from the velocity field is easy. The discrete weak equation for the pressure gradient is,
:<math>(\mathbf{g}_i, \nabla p) = -(\mathbf{g}_i, \mathbf{u}\cdot\nabla\mathbf{u}_j) - \nu(\nabla\mathbf{g}_i: \nabla\mathbf{u}_j) + (\mathbf{g}_i, \mathbf{f}^I)</math>
 
where the test/weight functions are irrotational. Any conforming scalar finite element may be used. However, the pressure gradient field may also be of interest. In this case one can use scalar Hermite elements for the pressure. For the test/weight functions <math>\mathbf{g}_i</math> one would choose the irrotational vector elements obtained from the gradient of the pressure element.
 
==Compressible flow of Newtonian fluids==
 
There are some phenomena that are closely linked with fluid [[compressibility]]. One of the obvious examples is sound. Description of such phenomena requires more general presentation of the Navier–Stokes equation that takes into account fluid compressibility. If viscosity is assumed a constant, one additional term appears, as shown here:<ref>Landau & Lifshitz (1987) pp. 44–45.</ref><ref>Batchelor (1967) pp. 147 & 154.</ref>
 
:<math>\rho \left(\frac{\partial  \mathbf{u}}{\partial t} + \mathbf{u} \cdot \nabla \mathbf{u}\right)  -  \mu \nabla^2 \mathbf{u} - \left(\zeta + \frac{\mu}{3}\right) \nabla (\nabla \cdot \mathbf{u})= -\nabla p + \mathbf{f}, </math>
 
where <math>\zeta</math> is the [[volume viscosity| second viscosity]].
 
==Application to specific problems==
The Navier–Stokes equations, even when written explicitly for specific fluids, are rather generic in nature and their proper application to specific problems can be very diverse. This is partly because there is an enormous variety of problems that may be modeled, ranging from as simple as the distribution of static pressure to as complicated as [[multiphase flow]] driven by [[surface tension]].
 
Generally, application to specific problems begins with some flow assumptions and initial/boundary condition formulation, this may be followed by [[Scale analysis (mathematics)|scale analysis]] to further simplify the problem.
 
[[Image:NSConvection.png|thumb|400px|Visualization of a) parallel flow and b) radial flow.]]
 
a)
Assume steady, parallel, one dimensional, non-convective pressure-driven flow between parallel plates, the resulting scaled (dimensionless) [[boundary value problem]] is:
:<math>\frac{d^2 u}{d y^2} = -1; \quad u(0) = u(1) = 0.</math>
 
The boundary condition is the [[no slip condition]]. This problem is easily solved for the flow field:
:<math>u(y) = \frac{y - y^2}{2}.</math>
 
From this point onward more quantities of interest can be easily obtained, such as viscous drag force or net flow rate.
 
b)
Difficulties may arise when the problem becomes slightly more complicated. A seemingly modest twist on the parallel flow above would be the ''radial'' flow between parallel plates; this involves convection and thus non-linearity. The velocity field may be represented by a function <math>f(z)</math> that must satisfy:
:<math>\frac{d^2 f}{d z^2} + R f^2 = -1; \quad f(-1) = f(1) = 0.</math>
 
This [[ordinary differential equation]] is what is obtained when the Navier–Stokes equations are written and the flow assumptions applied (additionally, the pressure gradient is solved for). The [[nonlinear]] term makes this a very difficult problem to solve analytically (a lengthy [[Implicit function|implicit]] solution may be found which involves [[elliptic integrals]] and [[Cubic formula|roots of cubic polynomials]]). Issues with the actual existence of solutions arise for R > 1.41 (approximately; this is not the [[square root of 2]]), the parameter R being the Reynolds number with appropriately chosen scales.<ref name="TM Shah">{{cite web|last=Shah |first=Tasneem Mohammad|title=Analysis of the multigrid method|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989STIN...9123418S|publisher=Published by Dr. TM Shah; republished by The Smithsonian/NASA Astrophysics Data System|accessdate=8 January 2013|year=1972}}</ref>  This is an example of flow assumptions losing their applicability, and an example of the difficulty in "high" Reynolds number flows.<ref name="TM Shah"/>
 
==Exact solutions of the Navier–Stokes equations==
Some exact solutions to the Navier–Stokes equations exist. Examples of degenerate cases — with the non-linear terms in the Navier–Stokes equations equal to zero — are [[Hagen-Poiseuille equation|Poiseuille flow]], [[Couette flow]] and the oscillatory [[Stokes boundary layer]]. But also more interesting examples, solutions to the full non-linear equations, exist; for example the [[Taylor–Green vortex]].<ref>
{{citation
| journal=Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics
| volume=23
| pages=159–177
| year=1991
| doi=10.1146/annurev.fl.23.010191.001111
| title=Exact solutions of the steady-state Navier–Stokes equations
| first=C.Y.
| last=Wang
|bibcode = 1991AnRFM..23..159W
}}</ref><ref>
Landau & Lifshitz (1987) pp. 75–88.
</ref><ref>
{{citation
| last1=Ethier
| first1=C.R.
| last2=Steinman
| first2=D.A.
| title = Exact fully 3D Navier–Stokes solutions for benchmarking
| journal=International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids
| year=1994
| volume=19
| issue=5
| pages=369–375
| doi=10.1002/fld.1650190502
|bibcode = 1994IJNMF..19..369E
}}</ref>
Note that the existence of these exact solutions does not imply they are stable: turbulence may develop at higher Reynolds numbers.
 
{{hidden
|A two dimensional example
|For example, in the case of an unbounded planar domain with '''two-dimensional''' — incompressible and stationary — flow in [[polar coordinates]] <math>(r,\phi),</math> the velocity components <math>(u_r,u_\phi)</math> and pressure ''p'' are:<ref>{{citation
| first=O.A.
| last= Ladyzhenskaya
| year=1969
| title=The Mathematical Theory of viscous Incompressible Flow
| edition=2nd
| page=preface, xi
}}</ref>
 
:<math>
    u_r = \frac{A}{r}, \qquad
  u_\phi = B\left(\frac{1}{r} - r^{\frac{A}{\nu} + 1}\right), \qquad
      p = -\frac{A^2 + B^2}{2r^2} - \frac{2B^2 \nu r^\frac{A}{\nu}}{A} + \frac{B^2 r^\left(\frac{2A}{\nu} + 2\right)}{2\frac{A}{\nu} + 2}
</math>
 
where A and B  are arbitrary constants. This solution is valid in the domain ''r''&nbsp;≥&nbsp;1 and for <math> A < -2\nu</math>.
 
In Cartesian coordinates, when the viscosity is zero (<math>\nu = 0</math>), this is:
:<math>
  \mathbf{v}(x,y) = \frac{1}{x^2 + y^2}\begin{pmatrix} Ax + By \\ Ay - Bx \end{pmatrix}, \qquad
          p(x,y) = -\frac{A^2 + B^2}{2(x^2 + y^2)}
</math>
 
|style = border: 1px solid lightgray; width: 90%;
|headerstyle = text-align:left
}}
 
{{hidden
|A three-dimensional example
|For example, in the case of an unbounded Euclidean domain with '''three-dimensional''' — incompressible, stationary and with zero viscosity (<math>\nu=0</math>) — radial flow in [[Cartesian coordinates]] <math>(x,y,z),</math> the velocity vector <math>\mathbf{v}</math> and pressure ''p'' are:{{citation needed|date=January 2014}}
 
:<math>
  \mathbf{v}(x, y, z) = \frac{A}{x^2 + y^2 + z^2}\begin{pmatrix} x \\ y\\ z \end{pmatrix}, \qquad
          p(x, y, z) = -\frac{A^2}{2(x^2 + y^2 + z^2)}.
</math>
 
There is a singularity at <math>x = y = z = 0</math>.
 
|style = border: 1px solid lightgray; width: 90%;
|headerstyle = text-align:left
}}
 
===A three-dimensional steady-state vortex solution===
[[Image:Hopfkeyrings.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Some of the flow lines along a [[Hopf fibration]].]]
A nice steady-state example with no singularities comes from considering the flow along the lines of a [[Hopf fibration]]. Let r be a constant radius to the inner coil. One set of solutions is given by:<ref>{{citation
| url= http://www.jetp.ac.ru/cgi-bin/dn/e_055_01_0069.pdf
| year=1982
| title=Topological solitons in magnetohydrodynamics
| first=A. M
| last= Kamchatno
}}</ref>
:<math>\begin{align}
        \rho(x, y, z) &= \frac{3B}{r^2 + x^2 + y^2 + z^2} \\
          p(x, y, z) &= \frac{-A^2B}{(r^2 + x^2 + y^2 + z^2)^3} \\
  \mathbf{u}(x, y, z) &= \frac{A}{(r^2 + x^2 + y^2 + z^2)^2}\begin{pmatrix} 2(-ry + xz) \\ 2(rx + yz) \\ r^2 - x^2 - y^2 + z^2 \end{pmatrix} \\
                    g &= 0 \\
                  \mu &= 0
\end{align}</math>
 
for arbitrary constants A and B. This is a solution in a non-viscous gas (compressible fluid) whose density, velocities and pressure goes to zero far from the origin. (Note this is not a solution to the Clay Millennium problem because that refers to incompressible fluids where <math>\rho</math> is a constant, neither does it deal with the uniqueness of the Navier–Stokes equations with respect to any [[turbulence]] properties.) It is also worth pointing out that the components of the velocity vector are exactly those from the [[Pythagorean quadruple]] parametrization. Other choices of density and pressure are possible with the same velocity field:
 
{{hidden
|Other choices of density and pressure
|Another choice of pressure and density with the same velocity vector above is one where the pressure and density fall to zero at the origin and are highest in the central loop at <math>z = 0, x^2 + y^2 = r^2</math>:
:<math>\begin{align}
  \rho(x, y, z) &= \frac{20B(x^2 + y^2)}{(r^2 + x^2 + y^2 + z^2)^3} \\
    p(x, y, z) &= \frac{-A^2B}{(r^2 + x^2 + y^2 + z^2)^4} + \frac{-4A^2B(x^2 + y^2)}{(r^2 + x^2 + y^2 + z^2)^5}.
\end{align}</math>
 
In fact in general there are simple solutions for any polynomial function f where the density is:
:<math>\rho(x, y, z) = \frac{1}{r^2 + x^2 + y^2 + z^2} f\left(\frac{x^2 + y^2}{(r^2 + x^2 + y^2 + z^2)^2}\right).</math>
 
|style = border: 1px solid lightgray; width: 90%;
|headerstyle = text-align:left
}}
 
==Wyld diagrams==<!-- [[Wyld diagrams]] redirects here-->
'''Wyld diagrams''' are bookkeeping [[graph (mathematics)|graphs]] that correspond to the Navier–Stokes equations via a [[perturbation theory|perturbation expansion]] of the fundamental [[continuum mechanics]]. Similar to the [[Feynman diagram]]s in [[quantum field theory]], these diagrams are an extension of [[Mstislav Keldysh|Keldysh]]'s technique for nonequilibrium processes in fluid dynamics.  In other words, these diagrams assign [[graph theory|graphs]] to the (often) [[turbulence|turbulent]] phenomena in turbulent fluids by allowing [[correlation function|correlated]] and interacting fluid particles to obey [[stochastic processes]] associated to [[pseudo-random]] [[function (mathematics)|functions]] in [[probability distribution]]s.<ref>{{citation | title=Renormalization methods: A guide for beginners | first=W.D. | last=McComb | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2008 | isbn=0-19-923652-6 }} pp. 121–128.</ref>
 
==Navier–Stokes equations use in games==<!-- [[Wyld diagrams]] redirects here-->
The Navier–Stokes equations are used extensively in video games in order to model a wide variety of natural phenomena. Simulations of small-scale gaseous fluids, such as fire and smoke are often based on the seminal paper "Real-Time Fluid Dynamics for Games"<ref>{{citation
| url= http://www.dgp.toronto.edu/people/stam/reality/Research/pdf/GDC03.pdf
| year=2003
| title=Real-Time Fluid Dynamics for Games
| first=Jos
| last=Stam
}}</ref> by [[Jos Stam]], which elaborates one of the methods proposed in Stam's earlier, more famous paper "Stable Fluids"<ref>{{citation
| url= http://www.dgp.toronto.edu/people/stam/reality/Research/pdf/ns.pdf
| year=1999
| title=Stable Fluids
| first=Jos
| last=Stam
}}</ref> from 1999. Stam proposes stable fluid simulation using a Navier–Stokes solution method from 1968, coupled with an unconditionally stable semi-Lagrangian advection scheme, as first proposed in 1992.
 
More recent implementations based upon this work run on the GPU as opposed to the CPU and achieve a much higher degree of performance.<ref>{{citation
| year=2004
| title=GPUGems - Fast Fluid Dynamics Simulation on the GPU
| chapter=38
| first=Mark J.
| last=Harris
}}</ref><ref>{{citation
| year=2007
| title=ShaderX5 - Explicit Early-Z Culling for Efficient Fluid Flow Simulation
| chapter=9.6
| pages=553–564
| first=P.
| last=Sander
| first2=N.
| last2=Tatarchuck
| first3=J.L.
| last3=Mitchell
}}</ref>
Many improvements have been proposed to Stam's original work, which suffers inherently from high numerical dissipation in both velocity and mass.
 
An introduction to interactive fluid simulation can be found in the 2007 [[ACM SIGGRAPH]] course, Fluid Simulation for Computer Animation.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Robert Bridson|author2=Matthias Müller-Fischer|title=Fluid Simulation for Computer Animation|url=http://www.cs.ubc.ca/~rbridson/fluidsimulation/|website=www.cs.ubc.ca}}</ref>
 
==See also==
{{columns-list|colwidth=25em|
*[[Adhémar Jean Claude Barré de Saint-Venant]]
*[[Boltzmann equation]]
*[[Churchill–Bernstein equation]]
*[[Coandă effect]]
*[[Computational fluid dynamics]]
*[[Euler equations (fluid dynamics)|Euler equations]]
*[[Fokker–Planck equation]]
*[[Hagen–Poiseuille flow from the Navier–Stokes equations]]
*[[Derivation of the Navier–Stokes equations]]
*[[Non-dimensionalization and scaling of the Navier–Stokes equations]]
*[[Pressure-correction method]]
*[[Reynolds transport theorem]]
*[[Vlasov equation]]
}}
 
==Notes==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
 
==References==
*{{Citation
  | last = Acheson
  | first = D. J.
  | title = Elementary Fluid Dynamics
  | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]
  | series = Oxford Applied Mathematics and Computing Science Series
  | year = 1990
  | isbn = 0-19-859679-0 }}
*{{citation | first=G. K. | last=Batchelor | authorlink=George Batchelor | title=An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics | year=1967 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=0-521-66396-2 }}
*{{citation | title=Fluid mechanics | first1=L. D. | last1=Landau | author1-link=Lev Landau | author2-link=Evgeny Lifshitz | last2=Lifshitz | first2= E. M. | year=1987 | publisher=Pergamon Press | series=[[Course of Theoretical Physics]] | volume=6 | edition=2nd revised | isbn=0-08-033932-8 | oclc=15017127 }}
*{{citation | first=Inge L. | last=Rhyming | title=Dynamique des fluides | year=1991 | publisher=[[Presses polytechniques et universitaires romandes]]}}
*{{citation | first1=A. D. | last1=Polyanin | first2=A. M. | last2=Kutepov | first3=A. V. | last3=Vyazmin | first4=D. A. | last4=Kazenin | title=Hydrodynamics, Mass and Heat Transfer in Chemical Engineering | publisher=Taylor & Francis, London | year=2002 | isbn=0-415-27237-8 }}
*{{Citation
  | last = Currie
  | first = I. G.
  | title = Fundamental Mechanics of Fluids
  | publisher = [[McGraw-Hill]]
  | year = 1974
  | isbn = 0-07-015000-1 }}
* V. Girault and P.A. Raviart.  ''Finite Element Methods for Navier–Stokes Equations: Theory and Algorithms.''  Springer Series in Computational Mathematics.  Springer-Verlag, 1986.
 
==External links==
* [http://www.allstar.fiu.edu/aero/Flow2.htm Simplified derivation of the Navier–Stokes equations]
* [http://www.claymath.org/sites/default/files/navierstokes.pdf Millennium Prize problem description.]
* [http://www.cfd-online.com/Wiki/Codes CFD online software list] A compilation of codes, including Navier–Stokes solvers.
* [http://nerget.com/fluidSim/ Online fluid dynamics simulator] Solves the Navier–Stokes equation numerically and visualizes it using Javascript.
* [https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/nseqs.html Three-dimensional unsteady form of the Navier-Stokes equations] Glenn Research Center, NASA


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Revision as of 14:29, 9 August 2014

Template:Featured article Template:Infobox block cipher In cryptography, a Caesar cipher, also known as Caesar's cipher, the shift cipher, Caesar's code or Caesar shift, is one of the simplest and most widely known encryption techniques. It is a type of substitution cipher in which each letter in the plaintext is replaced by a letter some fixed number of positions down the alphabet. For example, with a shift of 3, A would be replaced by D, B would become E, and so on. The method is named after Julius Caesar, who used it in his private correspondence.

The encryption step performed by a Caesar cipher is often incorporated as part of more complex schemes, such as the Vigenère cipher, and still has modern application in the ROT13 system. As with all single alphabet substitution ciphers, the Caesar cipher is easily broken and in modern practice offers essentially no communication security.

Example

The transformation can be represented by aligning two alphabets; the cipher alphabet is the plain alphabet rotated left or right by some number of positions. For instance, here is a Caesar cipher using a left rotation of three places (the shift parameter, here 3, is used as the key): 

Plain:    ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Cipher:   DEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABC

When encrypting, a person looks up each letter of the message in the "plain" line and writes down the corresponding letter in the "cipher" line. Deciphering is done in reverse. 

Ciphertext: WKH TXLFN EURZQ IRA MXPSV RYHU WKH ODCB GRJ
Plaintext:  the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog

The encryption can also be represented using modular arithmetic by first transforming the letters into numbers, according to the scheme, A = 0, B = 1,..., Z = 25.[1] Encryption of a letter by a shift n can be described mathematically as,[2]

Decryption is performed similarly,

(There are different definitions for the modulo operation. In the above, the result is in the range 0...25. I.e., if x+n or x-n are not in the range 0...25, we have to subtract or add 26.)

The replacement remains the same throughout the message, so the cipher is classed as a type of monoalphabetic substitution, as opposed to polyalphabetic substitution.

History and usage

The Caesar cipher is named for Julius Caesar, who used an alphabet with a left shift of three.

The Caesar cipher is named after Julius Caesar, who, according to Suetonius, used it with a shift of three to protect messages of military significance. While Caesar's was the first recorded use of this scheme, other substitution ciphers are known to have been used earlier. 31 year-old Systems Analyst Bud from Deep River, spends time with pursuits for instance r/c cars, property developers new condo in singapore singapore and books. Last month just traveled to Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape. His nephew, Augustus, also used the cipher, but with a right shift of one, and it did not wrap around to the beginning of the alphabet: 31 year-old Systems Analyst Bud from Deep River, spends time with pursuits for instance r/c cars, property developers new condo in singapore singapore and books. Last month just traveled to Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape. There is evidence that Julius Caesar used more complicated systems as well,[3] and one writer, Aulus Gellius, refers to a (now lost) treatise on his ciphers: 31 year-old Systems Analyst Bud from Deep River, spends time with pursuits for instance r/c cars, property developers new condo in singapore singapore and books. Last month just traveled to Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape.

It is unknown how effective the Caesar cipher was at the time, but it is likely to have been reasonably secure, not least because most of Caesar's enemies would have been illiterate and others would have assumed that the messages were written in an unknown foreign language.[4] There is no record at that time of any techniques for the solution of simple substitution ciphers. The earliest surviving records date to the 9th century works of Al-Kindi in the Arab world with the discovery of frequency analysis.[5]

A Caesar cipher with a shift of one is used on the back of the Mezuzah to encrypt the names of God. This may be a holdover from an earlier time when Jewish people were not allowed to have Mezuzahs. The letters of the cryptogram themselves comprise a religiously significant "divine name" which Orthodox belief holds keeps the forces of evil in check.[6]

In the 19th century, the personal advertisements section in newspapers would sometimes be used to exchange messages encrypted using simple cipher schemes. Kahn (1967) describes instances of lovers engaging in secret communications enciphered using the Caesar cipher in The Times.[7] Even as late as 1915, the Caesar cipher was in use: the Russian army employed it as a replacement for more complicated ciphers which had proved to be too difficult for their troops to master; German and Austrian cryptanalysts had little difficulty in decrypting their messages.[8]

Caesar ciphers can be found today in children's toys such as secret decoder rings. A Caesar shift of thirteen is also performed in the ROT13 algorithm, a simple method of obfuscating text widely found on Usenet and used to obscure text (such as joke punchlines and story spoilers), but not seriously used as a method of encryption.[9]

The Vigenère cipher uses a Caesar cipher with a different shift at each position in the text; the value of the shift is defined using a repeating keyword. If the keyword is as long as the message, chosen random, never becomes known to anyone else, and is never reused, this is the one-time pad cipher, proven unbreakable. The conditions are so difficult they are, in practical effect, never achieved. Keywords shorter than the message (e.g., "Complete Victory" used by the Confederacy during the American Civil War), introduce a cyclic pattern that might be detected with a statistically advanced version of frequency analysis.[10]

In April 2006, fugitive Mafia boss Bernardo Provenzano was captured in Sicily partly because some of his messages, written in a variation of the Caesar cipher, were broken. Provenzano's cipher used numbers, so that "A" would be written as "4", "B" as "5", and so on.[11]

In 2011, Rajib Karim was convicted in the United Kingdom of "terrorism offences" after using the Caesar cipher to communicate with Bangladeshi Islamic activists discussing plots to blow up British Airways planes or disrupt their IT networks. Although the parties had access to far better encryption techniques (Karim himself used PGP for data storage on computer disks), they chose to use their own scheme instead (implemented in Microsoft Excel) "because 'kaffirs', or non-believers, know about it [ie, PGP] so it must be less secure". [12]

Breaking the cipher

Decryption
shift 		Candidate plaintext
0 exxegoexsrgi
1 dwwdfndwrqfh
2 cvvcemcvqpeg
3 buubdlbupodf
4 attackatonce
5 zsszbjzsnmbd
6 yrryaiyrmlac
...
23 haahjrhavujl
24 gzzgiqgzutik
25 fyyfhpfytshj

The Caesar cipher can be easily broken even in a ciphertext-only scenario. Two situations can be considered:

  1. an attacker knows (or guesses) that some sort of simple substitution cipher has been used, but not specifically that it is a Caesar scheme;
  2. an attacker knows that a Caesar cipher is in use, but does not know the shift value.

In the first case, the cipher can be broken using the same techniques as for a general simple substitution cipher, such as frequency analysis or pattern words.[13] While solving, it is likely that an attacker will quickly notice the regularity in the solution and deduce that a Caesar cipher is the specific algorithm employed.

The distribution of letters in a typical sample of English language text has a distinctive and predictable shape. A Caesar shift "rotates" this distribution, and it is possible to determine the shift by examining the resultant frequency graph.

In the second instance, breaking the scheme is even more straightforward. Since there are only a limited number of possible shifts (26 in English), they can each be tested in turn in a brute force attack.[14] One way to do this is to write out a snippet of the ciphertext in a table of all possible shifts[15] — a technique sometimes known as "completing the plain component".[16] The example given is for the ciphertext "EXXEGOEXSRGI"; the plaintext is instantly recognisable by eye at a shift of four. Another way of viewing this method is that, under each letter of the ciphertext, the entire alphabet is written out in reverse starting at that letter. This attack can be accelerated using a set of strips prepared with the alphabet written down them in reverse order. The strips are then aligned to form the ciphertext along one row, and the plaintext should appear in one of the other rows.

Another brute force approach is to match up the frequency distribution of the letters. By graphing the frequencies of letters in the ciphertext, and by knowing the expected distribution of those letters in the original language of the plaintext, a human can easily spot the value of the shift by looking at the displacement of particular features of the graph. This is known as frequency analysis. For example in the English language the plaintext frequencies of the letters E, T, (usually most frequent), and Q, Z (typically least frequent) are particularly distinctive.[17] Computers can also do this by measuring how well the actual frequency distribution matches up with the expected distribution; for example, the chi-squared statistic can be used.[18]

For natural language plaintext, there will, in all likelihood, be only one plausible decryption, although for extremely short plaintexts, multiple candidates are possible. For example, the ciphertext MPQY could, plausibly, decrypt to either "aden" or "know" (assuming the plaintext is in English); similarly, "ALIIP" to "dolls" or "wheel"; and "AFCCP" to "jolly" or "cheer" (see also unicity distance).

Multiple encryptions and decryptions provide no additional security. This is because two encryptions of, say, shift A and shift B, will be equivalent to an encryption with shift A + B. In mathematical terms, the encryption under various keys forms a group.[19]

Notes

43 year old Petroleum Engineer Harry from Deep River, usually spends time with hobbies and interests like renting movies, property developers in singapore new condominium and vehicle racing. Constantly enjoys going to destinations like Camino Real de Tierra Adentro.

Bibliography

  • David Kahn, The Codebreakers — The Story of Secret Writing, Revised ed. 1996. ISBN 0-684-83130-9.
  • F.L. Bauer, Decrypted Secrets, 2nd edition, 2000, Springer. ISBN 3-540-66871-3.
  • Chris Savarese and Brian Hart, The Caesar Cipher, 1999

External links

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This rule, which applies to all new Singapore property sales, is to ensure that monies for a challenge, whether loans or sale proceeds, only be used for the project and not diverted to other makes use of, or worse, absconded with. By Property Soul, a profitable property investor and fanatic who shares her experiences and data on her blog Posted courtesy of www.Propwise.sg , a Singapore property weblog dedicated to serving to you perceive the real estate market and make higher choices. Click right here to get your free Property Newbie's and Purchaser's Information Developers may conduct property launches in Singapore by way of an in-home advertising crew, or more doubtless (to minimise staffing), by appointing external actual estate businesses to do the advertising. The Panorama

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For those who are fervently wishing property costs will fall, the unhealthy information is they don't seem to be prone to. Based on Knight Frank chairman Tan Tiong Cheng, "So what in the event that they delay launches for a couple of months. In spite of everything, most of them have strong stability sheets and the Singapore financial system seems to be persevering with to carry out nicely." One Surin is a freehold strata terrace development located alongside 1 Surin Avenue in Singapore District 19. This cluster house terraces consists of 27 e Learn More City Villas @ Paya Lebar Crescent is an upcoming Cluster Housing Landed improvement situated at Paya Lebar Crescent, Singapore District 19. This Free Read Extra Good Investment Property with Excessive Rental Returns Is it safe to buy uncompleted property in Singapore?



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    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010.
  • Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010 — a simple approach.

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Template:Link GA Template:Link GA Real Estate Agent Renaldo Lester from Saint-Jean-Chrysostome, has several hobbies which include leathercrafting, property developers in singapore apartment for sale, this contact form, and crochet. Loves to see new cities and places like Ruins of Loropéni. Real Estate Agent Renaldo Lester from Saint-Jean-Chrysostome, has several hobbies which include leathercrafting, property developers in singapore apartment for sale, this contact form, and crochet. Loves to see new cities and places like Ruins of Loropéni. Real Estate Agent Renaldo Lester from Saint-Jean-Chrysostome, has several hobbies which include leathercrafting, property developers in singapore apartment for sale, this contact form, and crochet. Loves to see new cities and places like Ruins of Loropéni. Real Estate Agent Renaldo Lester from Saint-Jean-Chrysostome, has several hobbies which include leathercrafting, property developers in singapore apartment for sale, this contact form, and crochet. Loves to see new cities and places like Ruins of Loropéni.

az:Sezar şifrəsi bg:Шифър на Цезар br:Sifr Kaezar ca:Xifratge de Cèsar cs:Caesarova šifra de:Caesar-Verschlüsselung es:Cifrado César eo:Ĉifro de Cezaro eu:Zesar zifratu fa:رمز سزار fr:Chiffrement par décalage ko:카이사르 암호 hr:Cezarova šifra id:Sandi Caesar is:Reiknirit Sesars it:Cifrario di Cesare he:צופן קיסר ka:კეისრის კოდი kk:Цезарь шифры lv:Cēzara šifrs lb:Code Cäsar hu:Caesar-rejtjel mk:Цезарова шифра nl:Caesarcijfer ja:シーザー暗号 no:Cæsarchiffer pl:Szyfr Cezara pt:Cifra de César ro:Cifrul Cezar ru:Шифр Цезаря si:සීසර්-කේතාංකය simple:Caesar cipher sk:Cézarova šifra sl:Cezarjeva šifra sr:Цезарова шифра sv:Caesarchiffer th:รหัสซีซาร์ uk:Шифр Цезаря vi:Mật mã Caesar zh:凱撒密碼

  1. ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  2. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  3. ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  4. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  5. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  6. ↑ Template:Cite web
  7. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  8. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  9. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  10. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  11. ↑ Template:Cite news
  12. ↑ Template:Cite news
  13. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  14. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  15. ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  16. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  17. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  18. ↑ Template:Cite web
  19. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
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