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| [[Image:Laurent series.svg|frame|right|A Laurent series is defined with respect
| | Whenever you compare registry cleaners there are a amount of elements to look out for. Because of the sheer amount of for registry cleaners accessible found on the Internet at the moment it may be very effortless to be scammed. Something usually overlooked is the fact that a few of these products usually in actuality end up damaging your PC. And the registry they say they have cleaned may simply lead to more difficulties with your computer than the ones we started with.<br><br>Windows Defender - this does come standard with numerous Windows OS Machines, yet otherwise is download from Microsoft for free. It usually enable protect against spyware.<br><br>Windows is really dumb. It only knows how to follow commands plus instructions, meaning which whenever we install a system, which system has to tell Windows precisely what to do. This really is done by storing an "training file" inside the registry of your program. All your computer programs place these "manuals" into the registry, allowing the computer to run a broad array of programs. Whenever you load up 1 of those programs, Windows merely looks up the program file inside the registry, plus carries out its instructions.<br><br>Review the files plus clean it up regularly. Destroy all unnecessary and unused files considering they only jam the computer system. It usually definitely boost the speed of your computer plus be cautious that the computer never afflicted by a virus. Remember always to update the antivirus software each time. If you never employ your computer extremely frequently, you can take a free antivirus.<br><br>The second step to fixing these errors is to utilize a program called a "[http://bestregistrycleanerfix.com/registry-mechanic registry mechanic]" to scan by your computer plus fix any of the registry mistakes which may equally be leading to this error. A registry cleaner is a software system which will scan from a computer plus repair some of the difficulties that Windows has inside, permitting a computer to "remember" all the settings it has when it loads up. Although the registry is continually being employed to aid load up a big amount of programs on your PC, it's continually being saved incorrectly - leading to a big number of errors to be formed. To fix this issue, it's recommended we download a registry cleaner within the Internet and install it on a Pc, allowing Windows to run smoother again.<br><br>The system is designed plus built for the purpose of helping you accomplish tasks and not be pestered by windows XP error messages. When there are errors, what do we do? Some individuals pull their hair and cry, while those sane ones have their PC repaired, whilst those actually wise ones analysis to have the mistakes fixed themselves. No, these errors were not furthermore designed to rob you off your income plus time. There are factors to do to actually prevent this from happening.<br><br>The System File Checker (SFC) could aid inside resolving error 1721 as it, by its nature, scans the system files for corruption plus replaces them with their authentic versions. This requires you to have the Windows Installation DVD ROM for continuing.<br><br>Before we buy a whole modern system; it really is time to get the aged 1 cleaned up so you can begin getting more performed online today! Visit our site under and access the many reputable registry cleaner software available. |
| to a particular point ''c'' and a path of integration γ. The path of
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| integration must lie in an annulus, indicated here by the red color, inside which ''f''(''z'') is
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| [[holomorphic function|holomorphic]] (analytic).]]
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| In [[mathematics]], the '''Laurent series''' of a complex function ''f''(''z'') is a representation of that function as a [[power series]] which includes terms of negative degree. It may be used to express complex functions in cases where
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| a [[Taylor series]] expansion cannot be applied. The Laurent series was named
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| after and first published by [[Pierre Alphonse Laurent]] in 1843.
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| [[Karl Weierstrass]] may have discovered it first in 1841 but did not publish it at the time.{{citation needed|date=April 2012}}
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| The Laurent series for a complex function ''f''(''z'') about a point ''c'' is given by:
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| :<math>f(z)=\sum_{n=-\infty}^\infty a_n(z-c)^n</math>
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| where the ''a<sub>n</sub>'' are constants, defined by a [[line integral]]
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| which is a generalization of [[Cauchy's integral formula]]:
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| :<math>a_n=\frac{1}{2\pi i} \oint_\gamma \frac{f(z)\,\mathrm{d}z}{(z-c)^{n+1}}.\,</math>
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| The path of integration <math>\gamma</math> is counterclockwise around a closed,
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| [[rectifiable path]] containing no self-intersections, enclosing
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| ''c'' and lying in an [[annulus (mathematics)|annulus]] ''A'' in which <math>f(z)</math> is
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| [[holomorphic function|holomorphic]] (analytic). The expansion for <math>f(z)</math> will then be valid anywhere inside the annulus. The annulus is
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| shown in red in the diagram on the right, along with an example of a suitable
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| path of integration labeled <math>\gamma</math>.
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| If we take <math>\gamma</math> to be a circle <math> |z-c| = \varrho</math>, where <math>r < \varrho < R</math>, this just amounts
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| to computing the complex [[Fourier coefficients]] of the restriction of <math>f</math> to <math>\gamma</math>. The fact that these | |
| integrals are unchanged by a deformation of the contour <math>\gamma</math> is an immediate consequence of [[Stokes' theorem]].
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| In practice, the above integral formula may not offer the most practical method for computing the coefficients
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| <math>a_n</math> for a given function <math>f(z)</math>; instead, one often pieces together the Laurent
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| series by combining known Taylor expansions.
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| Because the Laurent expansion of a function is [[#Uniqueness|unique]] whenever
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| it exists, any expression of this form that actually equals the given function
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| <math>f(z)</math> in some annulus must actually be the
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| Laurent expansion of <math>f(z)</math>.
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| == Convergent Laurent series ==
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| Laurent series with complex coefficients are an important tool in [[complex analysis]], especially to investigate the behavior of functions near [[mathematical singularity|singularities]].
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| [[Image:Expinvsqlau SVG.svg|right|thumb|''e''<sup>−1/''x''<sup>2</sup></sup> and Laurent approximations: see text for key. As the negative degree of the Laurent series rises, it approaches the correct function.]]
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| [[Image:Expinvsqlau GIF.gif|right|thumb|''e''<sup>−1/''x''<sup>2</sup></sup> and its Laurent approximations with the negative degree rising. The neighborhood around the zero singularity can never be approximated.]]
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| Consider for instance the function <math>f(x) = e^{-1/x^2}</math> with <math>f(0) = 0</math>. As a real function, it is infinitely differentiable everywhere; as a complex function however it is not differentiable at ''x'' = 0. By replacing ''x'' by −1/''x''<sup>2</sup> in the [[power series]] for the [[exponential function]], we obtain its Laurent series which converges and is equal to ''ƒ''(''x'') for all complex numbers ''x'' except at the singularity ''x'' = 0. The graph opposite shows ''e''<sup>−1/''x''<sup>2</sup></sup> in black and its Laurent approximations
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| :<math>\sum_{n=0}^N(-1)^n\,{x^{-2n}\over n!}</math>
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| for ''N'' = <span style="color:#b30000;">1</span>, <span style="color:#00b300;">2</span>, <span style="color:#0000b3;">3</span>, <span style="color:#b3b300;">4</span>, <span style="color:#00b3b3;">5</span>, <span style="color:#b300b3;">6</span>, <span style="color:#b3b3b3;">7</span> and <span style="color:#33b300;">50</span>. As ''N'' → ∞, the approximation becomes exact for all (complex) numbers ''x'' except at the singularity ''x'' = 0.
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| More generally, Laurent series can be used to express [[holomorphic function]]s defined on an [[Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]], much as [[power series]] are used to express holomorphic functions defined on a [[Disk (mathematics)|disc]].
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| Suppose
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| :<math>\sum_{n=-\infty}^\infty a_n ( z - c )^n</math>
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| is a given Laurent series with complex coefficients ''a''<sub>''n''</sub> and a complex center ''c''. Then there exists a [[unique]] inner radius <var>r</var> and outer radius ''R'' such that: | |
| * The Laurent series converges on the open annulus ''A'' := {''z'' : ''r'' < |''z'' − ''c''| < ''R''}. To say that the Laurent series converges, we mean that both the positive degree power series and the negative degree power series converge. Furthermore, this convergence will be [[uniform convergence|uniform]] on [[compact set]]s. Finally, the convergent series defines a [[holomorphic function]] ''ƒ''(''z'') on the open annulus.
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| * Outside the annulus, the Laurent series diverges. That is, at each point of the [[exterior (topology)|exterior]] of ''A'', the positive degree power series or the negative degree power series diverges.
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| * On the [[boundary (topology)|boundary]] of the annulus, one cannot make a general statement, except to say that there is at least one point on the inner boundary and one point on the outer boundary such that ''ƒ''(''z'') cannot be holomorphically continued to those points.
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| It is possible that ''r'' may be zero or ''R'' may be infinite; at the other extreme, it's not necessarily true that ''r'' is less than ''R''.
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| These radii can be computed as follows:
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| :<math>r = \limsup_{n\rightarrow\infty} |a_{-n}|^{1/n}</math>
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| :<math>{1 \over R} = \limsup_{n\rightarrow\infty} |a_n|^{1/n}.</math>
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| We take ''R'' to be infinite when this latter [[limit superior|lim sup]] is zero.
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| Conversely, if we start with an annulus of the form ''A'' = {''z'' : ''r'' < |''z'' − ''c''| < ''R''} and a holomorphic function ''ƒ''(''z'') defined on ''A'', then there always exists a unique Laurent series with center ''c'' which converges (at least) on ''A'' and represents the function ''ƒ''(''z'').
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| As an example, let
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| :<math>f(z) = {1 \over (z-1)(z-2i)}.</math>
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| This function has singularities at ''z'' = 1 and ''z'' = 2''i'', where the denominator of the expression is zero and the expression is therefore undefined.
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| A [[Taylor series]] about ''z'' = 0 (which yields a power series) will only converge in a disc of [[radius]] 1, since it "hits" the singularity at 1.
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| However, there are three possible Laurent expansions about 0, depending on the region ''z'' is in:
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| * One is defined on the disc where |''z''| < 1; it is the same as the Taylor series,
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| ::<math>f(z) = \frac{1+2i}{5} \sum_{k=0}^\infty \left(\frac{1}{(2i)^{k+1}}-1\right)z^k.</math>
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| (The technique involves using [[partial fraction]]s to split the original expression for f(z) into two simpler fractions and then exploiting the fact that 1/(1-z) is the formula for the sum of a [[geometric series]] with first term 1 and constant multiplier z.)
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| * Another one is defined on the annulus where 1 < |''z''| < 2, caught between the two singularities,
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| ::<math>f(z) = \frac{1+2i}{5} \left(\sum_{k=1}^\infty \frac{1}{z^k} + \sum_{k=0}^\infty \frac{1}{(2i)^{k+1}}z^k\right).</math>
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| * The third one is defined on the infinite annulus where 2 < |''z''| < ∞,
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| ::<math>f(z) = \frac{1+2i}{5} \sum_{k=1}^\infty \frac{1-(2i)^{k-1}}{z^k}.</math>
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| :(The terms above can be derived through polynomial long division or using the sum of a [[geometric series]] trick again, this time using <math>\frac{1}{z}</math> and <math>\frac{2i}{z}</math> as the common ratios.)
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| The case ''r'' = 0, i.e. a holomorphic function ''ƒ''(''z'') which may be undefined at a single point ''c'', is especially important. <br />
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| The coefficient ''a''<sub>−1</sub> of the Laurent expansion of such a function is called the [[residue (complex analysis)|residue]] of ''ƒ''(''z'') at the singularity ''c''; it plays a prominent role in the [[residue theorem]].
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| For an example of this, consider
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| :<math>f(z) = {e^z \over z} + e^{1/z}.</math>
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| This function is holomorphic everywhere except at ''z'' = 0.
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| To determine the Laurent expansion about ''c'' = 0, we use our knowledge of the Taylor series of the [[exponential function]]:
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| :<math>f(z) = \cdots + \left ( {1 \over 3!} \right ) z^{-3} + \left ( {1 \over 2!} \right ) z^{-2} + 2z^{-1} + 2 + \left ( {1 \over 2!} \right ) z + \left ( {1 \over 3!} \right ) z^2 + \left ( {1 \over 4!} \right ) z^3 + \cdots</math>
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| and we find that the residue is 2. | |
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| == Uniqueness ==
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| Suppose a function ƒ(z) holomorphic on the annulus ''r'' < |''z'' − ''c''| < ''R'' has two Laurent series:
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| : <math>f(z)=\sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty}a_{n}\left(z-c\right)^{n}=\sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty}b_{n}\left(z-c\right)^{n}.</math>
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| Multiply both sides with <math>\left(z-c\right)^{-k-1}</math>, where k is an arbitrary integer, and integrate on a path γ inside the annulus,
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| : <math>\oint_{\gamma}\sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty}a_{n}\left(z-c\right)^{n-k-1}\mathrm{d}z=\oint_{\gamma}\sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty}b_{n}\left(z-c\right)^{n-k-1}\mathrm{d}z.</math>
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| The series converges uniformly on <math>r+\epsilon\leq|z-c|\leq R-\epsilon</math>, where ε is a positive number small enough for γ to be contained in the constricted closed annulus, so the integration and summation can be interchanged. Substituting the identity
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| : <math>\oint_{\gamma}(z-c)^{n-k-1}dz=2\pi i\delta_{nk}</math>
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| into the summation yields
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| : <math>a_k=b_k</math>
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| Hence the Laurent series is unique.
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| == Laurent polynomials ==
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| {{main|Laurent polynomial}}
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| A '''Laurent polynomial''' is a Laurent series in which only finitely many coefficients are non-zero. Laurent polynomials differ from ordinary [[polynomial]]s in that they may have terms of negative degree.
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| == Principal part ==
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| The '''principal part''' of a Laurent series is the series of terms with negative degree, that is
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| : <math>\sum_{k=-\infty}^{-1} a_k (z-c)^k.</math>
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| If the principal part of ''f'' is a finite sum, then ''f'' has a [[pole (complex analysis)|pole]] at ''c'' of order equal to (negative) the degree of the highest term; on the other hand, if ''f'' has an [[essential singularity]] at ''c'', the principal part is an infinite sum (meaning it has infinitely many non-zero terms).
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| If the inner radius of convergence of the Laurent series for ''f'' is 0, then this is if and only if: ''f'' has an essential singularity at ''c'' if and only if the principal part is an infinite sum, and has a pole otherwise.
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| If the inner radius of convergence is positive, ''f'' may have infinitely many negative terms but still be regular at ''c'', as in the example above, in which case it is represented by a ''different'' Laurent series in a disk about ''c''.
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| Laurent series with only finitely many negative terms are tame—they are a power series divided by <math>z^k</math>, and can be analyzed similarly—while Laurent series with infinitely many negative terms have complicated behavior on the inner circle of convergence.
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| === Multiplication ===
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| Laurent series cannot in general be multiplied.
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| Algebraically, the expression for the terms of the product may involve infinite sums which need not converge (one cannot take the [[convolution]] of integer sequences).
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| Geometrically, the two Laurent series may have non-overlapping annuli of convergence.
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| Two Laurent series with only ''finitely'' many negative terms can be multiplied: algebraically, the sums are all finite; geometrically, these have poles at ''c'', and inner radius of convergence 0, so they both converge on an overlapping annulus.
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| Thus when defining formal Laurent series, one requires Laurent series with only finitely many negative terms.
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| Similarly, the sum of two convergent Laurent series need not converge, though it is always defined formally, but the sum of two bounded below Laurent series (or any Laurent series on a punctured disk) has a non-empty annulus of convergence.
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| == See also ==
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| * [[Mittag-Leffler's theorem]]
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| * [[Formal Laurent series]] — Laurent series considered ''formally'', with coefficients from an arbitrary [[commutative ring]], without regard for convergence, and with only ''finitely'' many negative terms, so that multiplication is always defined.
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| * [[Z-transform]] — the special case where the Laurent series is taken about zero has much use in time series analysis.
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| * [[Fourier series]] — the substitution <math>z=e^{\pi i w}</math> transforms a Laurent series into a Fourier series, or conversely. This is used in the ''q''-series expansion of the [[j-invariant|''j''-invariant]].
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| == External links ==
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| * {{springer|title=Laurent series|id=p/l057690}}
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| * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Laurent_Pierre}}
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| * {{MathWorld | urlname=LaurentSeries | title=Laurent Series }}
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| * [http://math.fullerton.edu/mathews/c2003/LaurentSeriesMod.html Laurent Series Module by John H. Mathews]
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| *[http://www.mrob.com/pub/muency/laurentseries.html Laurent Series and Mandelbrot set by Robert Munafo]
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Laurent Series}}
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| [[Category:Complex analysis]]
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| [[Category:Mathematical series]]
| |
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