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| | Not much to say about myself at all.<br>Nice to be here and a member of wmflabs.org.<br>I just wish Im useful in some way here.<br><br>Feel free to surf to my website - [http://Www.Shelkan.ru/about-settlement/photo-gallery/detail/2/6.html fifa 15 Coin generator] |
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| [[File:Amerigo vespucci 1976 nyc aufgetakelt.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Italy|Italian]] [[full-rigged ship]] [[Amerigo Vespucci (ship)|''Amerigo Vespucci'']] in [[New York Harbor]], 1976]]
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| In modern parlance a '''ship''' has been any large [[Buoyancy|buoyant]] [[watercraft]]. Ships are generally distinguished from [[boat]]s based on size, shape and [[cargo]] or passenger capacity. Ships are used on [[lake]]s, [[sea]]s, and [[river]]s for a variety of activities, such as the [[ferry|transport of people]] or [[cargo ship|goods]], [[fishing]], [[cruise ship|entertainment]], [[Coast guard|public safety]], and [[warship|warfare]]. Historically, a "ship" was a [[sailing vessel]] with at least three [[square rig|square-rigged]] masts and a full [[bowsprit]].
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| Ships and boats have developed alongside humanity. In armed conflict and in daily life they have become an integral part of modern commercial and military systems. Fishing boats are used by millions of fishermen throughout the world. Military forces operate vessels for combat and to transport and support forces ashore. Commercial vessels, nearly 35,000 in number, carried 7.4 billion tons of cargo in 2007.<ref name="unctad07x">UNCTAD 2007, p. ''x'' and p. 32.</ref> Total number of ships(with [[IMO ship identification number|IMO]] number) as of 2011 is about 104,304.<ref>http://shippingresearch.wordpress.com/2012/07/31/how-many-ships-are-there-in-the-world/</ref>
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| Ships were always a key in history's great explorations and scientific and technological development. Navigators such as [[Zheng He]] spread such inventions as the [[compass]] and [[gunpowder]]. Ships have been used for such purposes as [[colonization]] and the [[slave trade]], and have served scientific, cultural, and humanitarian needs. After the 16th century, [[Columbian Exchange|new crops]] that had come from and to the Americas via the European seafarers significantly contributed to the world's population growth.<ref>"[http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/nchist-twoworlds/1866 The Columbian Exchange]". The University of North Carolina.</ref> Maritime transport has shaped the world's economy into today's energy-intensive pattern.
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| == Nomenclature ==
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| [[File:ship diagram-numbers.svg|thumb|upright=1.42|Main parts of ship. '''1''': [[Smokestack]] or [[Funnel]]; '''2''': [[Stern]]; '''3''': [[Propeller]] and [[Rudder]]; '''4''': [[Portside]] (the right side is known as [[starboard]]); '''5''': [[Anchor]]; '''6''': [[Bulbous bow]]; '''7''': [[Bow (ship)|Bow]]; '''8''': [[Deck (ship)|Deck]]; '''9''': [[Superstructure]] ]]
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| {{Details|Glossary of nautical terms}}
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| Ships can usually be distinguished from boats based on size and the ship's ability to operate independently for extended periods.<ref name="cut620">Cutler 1999, p. 620.</ref> A commonly used [[rule of thumb]] is that if one vessel can carry another, the larger of the two is a ship.<ref name="cut611">Cutler 1999, p. 611.</ref> [[Dinghy|Dinghies]] are carried on [[sailing yacht]]s as small as {{convert|35|ft|m|2}}, clearly not ships; this rule of thumb is not foolproof.
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| In the [[age of sail]], a "ship" was a sailing vessel with at least three square-rigged masts and a full [[bowsprit]]; other types of vessel were also defined by their [[sailplan]], e.g. [[barque]], [[brigantine]], etc.
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| A number of large vessels are usually referred to as boats. [[Submarine]]s are a prime example.<ref name="subs">{{cite web |url=http://www.navy.mil/navydata/cno/n87/history/subsaga5.html |title=The Saga of the Submarine: Early Years to the Beginning of Nuclear Power |accessdate=2008-10-03 |author=Chief of Naval Operations |authorlink= Chief of Naval Operations |coauthors= |date= |year=2001 |month=March |work= |publisher=United States Navy |pages= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= }}</ref> Other types of large vessel which are traditionally called boats are the [[lake freighter|Great Lakes freighter]], the [[riverboat]], and the [[ferryboat]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} Though large enough to carry their own boats and heavy cargoes, these vessels are designed for operation on inland or protected coastal waters.
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| In most maritime traditions ships have [[Ship naming and launching|individual names]], and modern ships may belong to a [[ship class]] often named after its first ship. In English, a ship is traditionally referred to as "she", even if named after a man, but this is not universal usage; some journalistic [[style guides]] advise using "it",<ref>E.g., ''The Chicago Manual of Style'', 15th edition, p. 356. 2003. ISBN 0-226-10403-6.</ref> others advise "she" and "her".<ref>{{cite web|author=Roger Boyes, Alex Spence Published at 12:01AM, July 9, 2012 |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/tools_and_services/specials/style_guide/article986744.ece |title=The Times Style Guide |publisher=Timesonline.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2012-07-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=George|first=Rose|title=All at Sea|url=http://www.slate.com/id/2274626/entry/2274627/|accessdate=4 December 2010|newspaper=[[Slate Magazine]]|date=29 November 2010}}</ref>
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| ==History==
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| {{Further|Maritime history}}
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| ===Prehistory and antiquity===
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| [[File:Floss.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[raft]] is among the simplest boat designs.]]
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| The first known vessels date back to the [[Neolithic Period]], about 10,000 years ago, but could not be described as ships. The first navigators began to use animal skins or woven fabrics as [[sail]]s. Affixed to the top of a pole set upright in a boat, these sails gave early ships range. This allowed men to explore widely, allowing for the settlement of Oceania for example (about 3,000 years ago).
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| By around [[30th century BC|3000 BC]], [[Ancient Egypt]]ians knew how to assemble wooden [[plank (wood)|planks]] into a [[hull (ship)|hull]].<ref name="AIA">Ward, Cheryl. "World's Oldest Planked Boats," in ''[[Archaeology (magazine)|Archaeology]]'' (Volume 54, Number 3, May/June 2001). [[Archaeological Institute of America]]. [http://www.archaeology.org/0105/abstracts/abydos3.html Archaeology.org]</ref> They used woven [[strap]]s to lash the planks together,<ref name="AIA" /> and [[Cyperus papyrus|reeds]] or [[grass]] stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams.<ref name="AIA" /><ref>The earliest known Egyptian boats date to 3000 B.C. and were found in Abydos in 1991. They consisted of planks joined by ropes passing through mortises. Similar boats dating to 2600 B.C. were found in 1954 and 1987 in pits at the Great Pyramid of Khufu in Giza. In 1894, Egyptian boats composed of planks joined by mortises and tenons were found in Dashur. See: [http://www.abc.se/~m10354/uwa/wreckmed.htm#Khufu ABC.se]</ref> The [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[historian]] and [[geographer]] [[Agatharchides]] had documented ship-faring among the early [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]]: ''"During the prosperous period of the [[Old Kingdom]], between the [[30th century BC|30th]] and [[25th century BC|25th centuries B. C.]], the [[Nile River|river]]-routes were kept in order, and [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] ships sailed the [[Red Sea]] as far as the [[myrrh]]-country."''<ref>[[Agatharchides]], in [[Wilfred Harvey Schoff]] (Secretary of the [[Philadelphia Civic Center|Commercial Museum of Philadelphia]]) with a foreword by W. P. Wilson, Sc. Director, [[University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology|The Philadelphia Museums]]. ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century, Translated from the Greek and Annotated'' (1912). New York, New York: Longmans, Green, and Co., pages 50 (for attribution) and 57 (for quote).</ref> [[Sneferu]]'s ancient cedar wood ship [[Praise of the Two Lands (ship)|Praise of the Two Lands]] is the first reference recorded (2613 <small>BCE</small>) to a ship being referred to by name.<ref>Anzovin, item # 5393, page 385 ''Reference to a ship with a name appears in an inscription of 2613 BCE that recounts the shipbuilding achievements of the fourth-dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Sneferu. He was recorded as the builder of a cedarwood vessel called "Praise of the Two Lands."''</ref>
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| The [[ancient Egypt]]ians were perfectly at ease building sailboats. A remarkable example of their [[shipbuilding]] skills was the [[Khufu ship]], a vessel {{convert|143|ft|m}} in length entombed at the foot of the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] around 2500 BC and found intact in 1954.
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| It is known that ancient [[Nubia]]/[[Axum]] traded with [[India]], and there is evidence that ships from Northeast Africa may have sailed back and forth between India/Sri Lanka and Nubia trading goods and even to [[Persia]], Himyar and [[Ancient Rome|Rome]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dskmariam.org/artsandlitreature/litreature/pdf/aksum.pdf |title=Aksum An African Civilization of Late Antiquity by Stuart Munro-Hay |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2012-07-09}}</ref> [[Aksumite Empire|Aksum]] was known by the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] for having seaports for ships from Greece and [[Yemen]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761564182/aksum.html |title=Aksum by MSN Encarta |publisher=Encarta.msn.com |date= |accessdate=2009-04-21}}</ref>
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| Elsewhere in Northeast Africa, the [[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea|Periplus of the Red Sea]] reports that [[Somali people|Somalis]], through their northern ports such as [[Zeila]] and [[Berbera]], were trading [[frankincense]] and other items with the inhabitants of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] well before the arrival of [[Islam]] as well as with then [[Roman Empire|Roman]]-controlled [[Egypt]].<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=2Nu918tYMB8C&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=medieval+Somali+sailors |title=Cultures and Customs of Somalia |publisher=|date= |accessdate=2009-04-21 | isbn=978-0-313-31333-2|year=2001|author1=Abdullahi|first1=Mohamed Diriye}}</ref>
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| A panel found at [[Mohenjodaro]] depicted a sailing craft. Vessels were of many types; their construction is vividly described in the Yukti Kalpa Taru, an ancient Indian text on shipbuilding. This treatise gives a technical exposition on the techniques of shipbuilding. It sets forth minute details about the various types of ships, their sizes, and the materials from which they were built. The Yukti Kalpa Taru sums up in a condensed form all the available information. The Yukti Kalpa Taru gives sufficient information and dates to prove that, in ancient times, Indian shipbuilders had a good knowledge of the materials which were used in building ships. In addition to describing the qualities of the different types of wood and their suitability for shipbuilding, the Yukti Kalpa Taru gives an elaborate classification of ships based on their size.
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| By about 2000 BC, the [[Minoan civilization]] in [[Crete]] had evolved into a naval power exercising effective control of the sea in the eastern [[Mediterranean]].<ref>"[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/384401/Minoan-civilization Minoan civilization]". Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref>
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| The oldest discovered sea faring hulled boat is the Egyptian [[Uluburun]] shipwreck off the coast of Turkey, dating back to 1300 B.C.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.weather.com/travel/12-amazing-sunken-treasure-discoveries-20130816?pageno=13|title=Sunken Treasures: The World's Most Valuable Shipwreck Discoveries|author= Liz Burlingame| date=Aug 23, 2013|publisher=The Weather Channel}}</ref>
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| The [[Phoenicia]]ns, the first to sail completely around Africa, and [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] gradually mastered navigation at sea aboard [[trireme]]s, exploring and colonizing the [[Mediterranean]] via ship. Around 340 BC, the Greek [[navigator]] [[Pytheas of Massalia]] ventured from Greece to [[Western Europe]] and [[Great Britain]].<ref name="eb703">Chisholm, 1911:703.</ref> In the course of the 2nd century BC, [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] went on to destroy [[Carthage]] and subdue the [[Hellenistic]] kingdoms of the eastern Mediterranean, achieving complete mastery of the inland sea, that they called ''[[Mare Nostrum]]''. The [[monsoon]] wind system of the [[Indian Ocean]] was first sailed by Greek navigator [[Eudoxus of Cyzicus]] in 118 BC.<ref>[http://www.unesco.org/csi/pub/source/alex5.htm Greatest emporium in the world], CSI, UNESCO.</ref> With 300 Greek ships a year sailing between [[Roman Empire]] and India, the annual trade may have reached 300,000 tons.<ref>"[http://www.iveybusinessjournal.com/article.asp?intPrintable=1&intArticle_ID=832 The Origins of Globalization]", Ivey Business Journal.</ref>
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| In China, by the time of the [[Zhou Dynasty]] ship technologies such as stern mounted [[rudder]]s were developed, and by the [[Han Dynasty]], a well kept naval fleet was an integral part of the military. Ship technology advanced to the point where by the medieval period, water tight compartments were developed.
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| [[File:Romtrireme.jpg|thumb|left|Roman [[trireme]] mosaic from Carthage, [[Bardo Museum]], [[Tunis]].]]
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| The [[Swahili people]] had various extensive trading ports dotting the coast of medieval East Africa and [[Great Zimbabwe]] had extensive trading contacts with [[Central Africa]], and likely also imported goods brought to Africa through the Southeast African shore trade of [[Kilwa District|Kilwa]] in modern-day [[Tanzania]].<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=cmaTt05CJ3wC&pg=PA242&lpg=PA242&dq=Great+Zimbabwe,+trade+port |title=Historical Archaeology |publisher=|date= |accessdate=2009-04-21 | first1=Martin | last1=Hall | first2=Stephen W. | last2=Silliman | isbn=978-1-4051-0751-8|year=2006}}</ref>
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| It is known by historians that at its height the [[Mali Empire]] built a large naval fleet under Emperor [[Mansa Musa]] in the late 13th and early 14th century.<ref>[http://www.texancultures.utsa.edu/publications/exploration/chapternine.htm Texancultures.utsa.edu]{{dead link|date=July 2012}}</ref> Arabic sources describe what some consider to be visits to the New World by a Mali fleet in 1311.<ref>{{cite news
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| |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1068950.stm
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| |title=Africa's 'greatest explorer'
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| |author=Joan Baxter |date=13 December 2000 |publisher=''[[BBC News]]''
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| |pages= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |accessdate=2008-02-12}}</ref>
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| [[File:Battle of Lepanto 1571.jpg|200px|thumb|The [[Battle of Lepanto (1571)|Battle of Lepanto]], 1571, naval engagement between allied Christian forces and the [[Ottoman Navy]].]]
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| Before the introduction of the compass, [[celestial navigation]] was the main method for navigation at sea. In China, early versions of the [[magnetic compass]] were being developed and used in navigation between 1040 and 1117.<ref>Li Shu-hua, “Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole,” ''Isis'', Vol. 45, No. 2. (Jul., 1954), p.181</ref> The true mariner's [[compass]], using a pivoting needle in a dry box, was developed in [[Europe]] no later than 1300.<ref>Frederic C. Lane, “The Economic Meaning of the Invention of the Compass,” ''The American Historical Review'', Vol. 68, No. 3. (Apr., 1963), p.615ff.</ref><ref name="eb284">Chisholm, 1911:284.</ref>
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| ===Renaissance===
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| Until the [[Renaissance]], navigational technology remained comparatively primitive. This absence of technology did not prevent some civilizations from becoming sea powers. Examples include the maritime republics of [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]] and [[Republic of Venice|Venice]], [[Hanseatic League]], and the [[Byzantine navy]]. The [[Viking]]s used their [[knarr]]s to explore [[North America]], trade in the [[Baltic Sea]] and plunder many of the coastal regions of Western Europe.
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| [[File:Santa-Maria.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A replica of the [[carrack]] [[Santa María (ship)|''Santa María'']] of [[Christopher Columbus]]]]
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| Towards the end of the 14th century, ships like the [[carrack]] began to develop towers on the bow and stern. These towers decreased the vessel's stability, and in the 15th century, the [[caravel]], designed by the [[Portugal|Portuguese]], based on the Arabic ''qarib'' which could sail closer to the wind, became more widely used. The towers were gradually replaced by the [[forecastle]] and [[stern]]castle, as in the carrack [[Santa María (ship)|''Santa María'']] of [[Christopher Columbus]]. This increased [[freeboard (nautical)|freeboard]] allowed another innovation: the freeing port, and the artillery associated with it.
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| [[File:Atakebune2.jpg|thumb|right|A Japanese [[atakebune]] from the 16th century]]
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| In the 16th century, the use of freeboard and freeing ports become widespread on [[galleon]]s. The English modified their vessels to maximize their firepower and demonstrated the effectiveness of their doctrine, in 1588, by defeating the [[Spanish Armada]].
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| At this time, ships were developing in Asia in much the same way as Europe. [[Japan]] used defensive naval techniques in the [[Mongol invasions of Japan]] in 1281. It is likely that the Mongols of the time took advantage of both European and Asian shipbuilding techniques. During the 15th century, China's [[Ming Dynasty]] assembled one of the largest and most powerful naval fleet in the world for the [[Treasure voyages|diplomatic and power projection voyages]] of [[Zheng He]]. Elsewhere in Japan in the 15th century, one of the world's first iron-clads, "Tekkōsen" ([[:ja:鉄甲船|鉄甲船]]), literally meaning "iron ships",<ref name="Stephen Turnbull 102">Stephen Turnbull, “Samurai Warfare” (London, 1996), Cassell & Co, p.102 ISBN 1-85409-280-4</ref> was also developed. In Japan, during the [[Sengoku era]] from the fifteenth to 17th century, the great struggle for feudal supremacy was fought, in part, by coastal fleets of several hundred boats, including the [[atakebune]].
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| [[File:Mogadishan ship.JPG|200px|thumb|right|[[Physical model|Model]] of a medieval [[Mogadishu|Mogadishan]] ship.]]
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| During the [[Ajuuraan State|Age of the Ajuuraan]], the [[Somalia|Somali]] [[sultanates]] and [[republic]]s of [[Merca]], [[Mogadishu]], [[Barawa]], [[Hobyo]] and their respective ports flourished, enjoying a lucrative foreign commerce with ships sailing to and coming from [[Arabia]], [[India]], [[Venetia (region)|Venetia]],<ref>Journal of African History pg.50 by John Donnelly Fage and Roland Anthony Oliver</ref> [[Persia]], [[Egypt]], [[Portugal]] and as far away as [[China]]. In the 16th century, [[Duarte Barbosa]] noted that many ships from the [[Khambhat|Kingdom of Cambaya]] in what is modern-day [[India]] sailed to Mogadishu with [[Textile|cloth]] and [[spice]]s, for which they in return received [[gold]], [[wax]] and [[ivory]]. Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of [[meat]], [[wheat]], [[barley]], [[horse]]s, and [[fruit]] on the coastal markets, which generated enormous wealth for the merchants.<ref>East Africa and its Invaders pg.38</ref>
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| Middle Age [[Swahili culture|Swahili Kingdoms]] are known to have had trade port islands and trade routes<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/06/sfe/ht06sfe.htm |title=Eastern and Southern Africa 500-1000 AD |publisher=Metmuseum.org |date= |accessdate=2009-04-21}}</ref> with the Islamic world and Asia and were described by Greek historians as "metropolises".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1924318.stm |title=Tanzanian dig unearths ancient secret by Tira Shubart |publisher=BBC News |date=2002-04-17 |accessdate=2009-04-21}}</ref> Famous African trade ports such as [[Mombasa]], [[Zanzibar]], and [[Kilwa Kisiwani|Kilwa]]<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=vLzp_zs1t6cC&pg=PA245&lpg=PA245&dq=Swahili+trade+ports |title=A History of Mozambique |publisher=|date= |accessdate=2009-04-21 | isbn=978-0-253-34006-1|year=1995|author1=Newitt|first1=M. D. D}}</ref> were known to Chinese sailors such as [[Zheng He]] and medieval Islamic historians such as the Berber Islamic voyager [[ibn Battuta|Abu Abdullah ibn Battua]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1354-ibnbattuta.html |title=Ibn Battuta: Travels in Asia and Africa 1325-1354 |publisher=Fordham.edu |date=2001-02-21 |accessdate=2009-04-21}}</ref> In the 14th century CE King [[Abu Bakr (mansa)|Abubakari I]], the brother of King [[Mansa Musa]] of the [[Mali Empire]] is thought to have had a great armada of ships sitting on the coast of [[West Africa]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kurahulanda.com/west-african-kingdoms/west-african |title=West African Kingdoms |publisher=Kurahulanda.com |date= |accessdate=2009-04-21}}</ref> This is corroborated by ibn Battuta himself who recalls several hundred Malian ships off the coast.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1624_story_of_africa/page82.shtml |title=The Story of Africa|publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2009-04-21}}</ref> This has led to great speculation, with historical evidence, that it is possible that Malian sailors may have reached the coast of [[Pre-Columbian]] America under the rule of [[Abu Bakr II|Abubakari II]], nearly two hundred years before Christopher Columbus<ref>{{cite web|author=A Review by AUSTIN HAY |url=http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9D02E6D91139E133A25751C2A9669D946395D6CF |title=Africa's Part in the Discovery of America by the |publisher=New York Times |date=1922-10-22 |accessdate=2012-07-09}}</ref> and that [[Pre-Columbian Africa-Americas contact theories|black traders may have been in the Americas before Columbus]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1068950.stm |title=Africa's 'greatest explorer' by BBC |publisher=BBC News |date=2000-12-13 |accessdate=2009-04-21}}</ref>
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| [[File:Nao Victoria.jpg|thumb|left|Replica of Magellan’s ''[[Victoria (ship)|Victoria]]''. [[Ferdinand Magellan]] led the first expedition that [[circumnavigated]] the globe in 1519-1522.]]
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| Fifty years before [[Christopher Columbus]], Chinese navigator [[Zheng He]] traveled the world at the head of what was for the time a [[Chinese treasure fleet|huge armada]]. The largest of his ships had nine masts, were {{convert|130|m|ft}} long and had a beam of {{convert|55|m|ft}}. His fleet carried 30,000 men aboard 70 vessels, with the goal of bringing glory to the Chinese emperor.
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| The [[carrack]] and then the [[caravel]] were developed in [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]]. After Columbus, [[Age of Discovery|European exploration]] rapidly accelerated, and many new trade routes were established.<ref>"[http://web.archive.org/web/20080505144147/http://www.discoverychannel.co.uk/ships/golden_age_of_shipping/golden_age_of_shipping/index.shtml The European Golden Age of Shipping]". Discovery Channel.</ref> In 1498, by reaching India, [[Vasco da Gama]] proved that the access to the [[Indian Ocean]] from the [[Atlantic]] was possible. These explorations in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans were soon followed by [[France]], [[England]] and the [[Netherlands]], who explored the Portuguese and Spanish trade routes into the [[Pacific Ocean]], reaching [[Australia]] in 1606 and [[New Zealand]] in 1642.<ref>Love, Ronald S., "Maritime exploration in the age of discovery, 1415-1800", Greenwood guides to historic events, 1500-1900, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006, ISBN 0-313-32043-8</ref> A major sea power, the [[Dutch Republic|Dutch]] in 1650 owned 16,000 merchant ships.<ref>"[http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display_printable.cfm?HHID=682 The Middle Colonies: New York]". [[Digital History]].</ref> In the 17th century Dutch explorers such as [[Abel Tasman]] explored the coasts of Australia, while in the 18th century it was British explorer [[James Cook]] who mapped much of [[Polynesia]].
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| ===Specialization and modernization===
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| [[File:Trafalgar-Auguste Mayer.jpg|thumb|The British [[HMS Sandwich (1759)|HMS ''Sandwich'']] fires at the French [[flagship]] ''[[French ship Bucentaure (1803)|Bucentaure]]'' (completely dismasted) at the battle of [[Battle of Trafalgar|Trafalgar]] (1805). The ''Bucentaure'' also fights [[HMS Victory|HMS ''Victory'']] (behind her) and [[HMS Temeraire (1798)|HMS ''Temeraire'']] (left side of the picture). In fact, HMS ''Sandwich'' never fought at Trafalgar, it's a mistake from [[Auguste Étienne François Mayer|Auguste Mayer]], the painter.<ref>[http://www.musee-marine.fr/cartel2.php?id=55 Auguste Mayer's picture as described by the official website of the Musée national de la Marine (in French)]{{dead link|date=July 2012}}</ref>]]
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| Parallel to the development of warships, ships in service of marine fishery and trade also developed in the period between antiquity and the Renaissance. Still primarily a coastal endeavor, fishing is largely practiced by individuals <!---there has to be a better way to say this!-->with little other money using small boats.
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| Maritime trade was driven by the development of shipping companies with significant financial resources. Canal barges, towed by draft animals on an adjacent [[towpath]], contended with the [[railway]] up to and past the early days of the [[industrial revolution]]. Flat-bottomed and flexible [[scow]] boats also became widely used for transporting small cargoes. Mercantile trade went hand-in-hand with exploration, self-financed by the commercial benefits of exploration.
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| During the first half of the 18th century, the [[French Navy]] began to develop a new type of vessel known as a [[ship of the line]], featuring seventy-four guns. This type of ship became the backbone of all European fighting fleets. These ships were {{convert|56|m|ft}} long and their construction required 2,800 oak trees and {{convert|40|km|mi}} of rope; they carried a crew of about 800 sailors and soldiers.
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| [[File:RMS Titanic 3.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[RMS Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']] departs from Southampton. Her sinking would [[Changes in safety practices following the RMS Titanic disaster|tighten safety regulations]]]]
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| During the 19th century the [[Royal Navy]] enforced a ban on the [[slave trade]], acted to suppress [[piracy]], and continued to map the world. A [[clipper]] was a very fast sailing ship of the 19th century. The [[clipper route]] fell into commercial disuse with the introduction of [[steamboat|steam ships]], and the opening of the [[Suez Canal|Suez]] and [[Panama Canal]]s.
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| Ship designs stayed fairly unchanged until the late 19th century. The industrial revolution, new mechanical methods of propulsion, and the ability to construct ships from metal triggered an explosion in ship design. Factors including the quest for more efficient ships, the end of long running and wasteful maritime conflicts, and the increased financial capacity of industrial powers created an avalanche of more specialized boats and ships. Ships built for entirely new functions, such as firefighting, rescue, and research, also began to appear.
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| In light of this, classification of vessels by type or function can be difficult. Even using very broad functional classifications such as fishery, trade, military, and exploration fails to classify most of the old ships. This difficulty is increased by the fact that the terms such as sloop and frigate are used by old and new ships alike, and often the modern vessels sometimes have little in common with their predecessors.
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| ===Today===
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| [[File:Colombo.Express.wmt.jpg|thumb|The ''[[Colombo Express]]'', one of the largest container ships in the world, owned and operated by [[Hapag-Lloyd]] of [[Germany]]]]
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| In 2007, the world's fleet included 34,882 commercial vessels with [[gross tonnage]] of more than 1,000 [[ton (volume)|tons]],<ref name="unctad0732">UNCTAD 2007, p. 32.</ref> totaling 1.04 billion tons.<ref name="unctad07x">UNCTAD 2007, p. ''x''.</ref> These ships carried 7.4 billion tons of cargo in 2006, a sum that grew by 8% over the previous year.<ref name="unctad07x"/> In terms of tonnage, 39% of these ships are [[tanker (ship)|tanker]]s, 26% are [[bulk carrier]]s, 17% [[container ship]]s and 15% were [[general cargo ship|other types]].<ref name="unctad07x"/>
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| In 2002, there were 1,240 [[warship]]s operating in the world, not counting small vessels such as [[patrol boat]]s. <!--Adding total tonnage before this next sentence would make it clearer!-->The [[United States]] accounted for 3 million tons worth of these vessels, [[Russia]] 1.35 million tons, the [[United Kingdom]] 504,660 tons and [[China]] 402,830 tons. The 20th century saw many naval engagements during the two [[world war]]s, the [[Cold War]], and the rise to power of naval forces of the two blocs. The world's major powers have recently used their naval power in cases such as the [[United Kingdom]] in the [[Falkland Islands]] and the [[United States]] in [[Iraq]].
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| The size of the world's [[fishing fleet]] is more difficult to estimate. The largest of these are counted as commercial vessels, but the smallest are legion. [[Fishing vessel]]s can be found in most seaside villages in the world. As of 2004, the United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] estimated 4 million fishing vessels were operating worldwide.<ref name="fao25"/> The same study estimated that the world's 29 million fishermen<ref name="fao6">UNFAO 2005, p.6.</ref> caught {{convert|85800000|t|LT ST|sigfig=3|lk=on}} of fish and shellfish that year.<ref name="fao9">UNFAO 2005, p.9.</ref>
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| ==Types of ships==
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| {{See also|List of types of naval vessels|List of boat types}}
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| Because ships are constructed using the principles of naval architecture that require same structural components, their classification is based on their function such as suggested by Paulet and Presles.,<ref name="paulet">{{cite book |last=Paulet |first=Dominique |coauthors=Presles ,Dominique |editor= |others= |title=Architecture navale, connaissance et pratique |year=1999 |publisher=Éditions de la Villette |location=Paris |language=Français |isbn=2-903539-46-4 }}</ref> which requires modification of the components. The categories accepted in general by naval architects are:
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| * [[High-speed craft]] - [[Multihull]]s including wave piercers, [[small-waterplane-area twin hull]] (SWATH), [[surface effect ship]]s and [[hovercraft]], [[hydrofoil]], [[Ground effect (aircraft)|wing in ground effect]] craft (WIG).
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| * [[Offshore drilling|Off shore oil]] vessels - [[Platform supply vessel]], pipe layers, accommodation and [[Crane vessel|crane]] [[barge]]s, non and semi-submersible [[drilling rig]]s, [[Oil platform|production platforms]], [[floating production storage and offloading]] units.
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| * [[Fishing vessel]]s
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| : Motorised [[fishing trawler]]s, [[fish traps|trap setters]], [[Seine fishing|seiners]], [[Longline fishing|longliners]], [[Trolling (fishing)|trollers]] & [[factory ship]]s.
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| : Traditional [[Sailboat|sailing]] and [[Watercraft rowing|rowed]] fishing vessels and [[boat]]s used for [[handline fishing]]
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| * [[Harbour]] work craft
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| :[[Cable layer]]s
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| :[[Tugboat]]s, [[dredger]]s, [[Marine salvage|salvage]] vessels, [[Ship's tender|tenders]], [[Pilot boat]]s.
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| :[[Drydock#Floating|Floating dry dock]]s, [[Crane vessel|floating crane]]s, [[Lighter aboard ship|lightership]].
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| * Dry cargo ships - tramp freighters, bulk carriers, cargo liners, container vessels, barge carriers, Ro-Ro ships, refrigerated cargo ships, timber carriers, livestock & light vehicle carriers.
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| * Liquid cargo ships - Oil tankers, liquefied gas carriers, chemical carriers.
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| * Passenger vessels
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| : Liners, cruise and Special Trade Passenger (STP) ships
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| : Cross-channel, coastal and harbour ferries.
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| : Luxury & cruising yachts
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| : Sail training and multi-masted ships
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| * Recreational boats and craft - rowed, masted and motorised craft
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| * Special-purpose vessels - [[weather ship|weather]] and [[research vessel]]s, deep sea [[survey vessel]]s, and [[icebreaker]]s.
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| * Submersibles - industrial exploration, scientific research, tourist and hydrographic survey.
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| * Warships
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| : Surface warships - deep and shallow draft
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| : Submarines
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| Some of these are discussed in the following sections.
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| ===Inland and coastal boats===
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| {{See also|Riverboat|Barge}}
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| [[File:Wappen von Köln.JPG|thumb|Passenger ship of [[Köln-Düsseldorfer]] on the river [[Rhine]]]]
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| Many types of boats are designed for inland and coastal waterways. These are the vessels that trade upon the lakes, rivers and canals.
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| Barges are a prime example of inland vessels. Flat-bottomed boats built to transport heavy goods, most barges are not self-propelled and need to be moved by [[tugboat]]s towing or [[towboat]]s pushing them. Barges towed along canals by draft animals on an adjacent [[towpath]] contended with the [[railway]] in the early [[industrial revolution]] but [[history of the British canal system|were out competed]] in the carriage of high value items because of the higher speed, falling costs, and route flexibility of [[rail transport]].
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| [[Lake freighter]]s, also called lakers, are [[cargo]] vessels that ply the [[Great Lakes]]. The most well-known is the {{SS|Edmund Fitzgerald}}, the latest major vessel to be wrecked on the Lakes. These vessels are traditionally called boats, not ships. Visiting ocean-going vessels are called "salties." Because of their additional [[Beam (nautical)|beam]], very large salties are never seen inland of the [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]]. Because the smallest of the [[Soo Locks]] is larger than any Seaway lock, salties that can pass through the Seaway may travel anywhere in the Great Lakes. Because of their deeper draft, salties may accept partial loads on the Great Lakes, "topping off" when they have exited the Seaway. Similarly, the largest lakers are confined to the Upper Lakes ([[Lake Superior|Superior]], [[Lake Michigan|Michigan]], [[Lake Huron|Huron]], [[Lake Erie|Erie]]) because they are too large to use the Seaway locks, beginning at the [[Welland Canal]] that bypasses the [[Niagara River]].
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| Since the [[freshwater]] lakes are less corrosive to ships than the [[Seawater|salt water]] of the oceans, lakers tend to last much longer than ocean freighters. Lakers older than 50 years are not unusual, and as of 2005, all were over 20 years of age.<ref name="oecd2">Office of Data and Economic Analysis, 2006, p. 2.</ref>
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| The ''[[SS St. Marys Challenger]]'', built in 1906 as the ''William P Snyder'', was the oldest laker still working on the Lakes until its conversion into a barge starting in 2013. Similarly, the ''E.M. Ford'', built in 1898 as the ''Presque Isle'', was sailing the lakes 98 years later in 1996. As of 2007 the ''Ford'' was still afloat as a stationary transfer vessel at a riverside cement silo in [[Saginaw, Michigan]].
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| ===Seagoing commercial vessels===
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| {{Main|Commercial vessel}}
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| [[File:Line0534.jpg|thumb|Two modern [[container ship]]s in [[San Francisco]]]]
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| Commercial vessels or [[merchant ship]]s can be divided into four broad categories: fishing, [[cargo ship]]s, [[passenger ship]]s, and special-purpose ships.<ref name="unctadxii">UNCTAD 2007, p. ''xii'' uses a similar, but slightly more detailed classification system.</ref> Modern commercial vessels are typically powered by a single propeller driven by a [[diesel engine|diesel]] or, less usually, [[gas turbine engine]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2008}}, but until the mid-19th century they were predominantly square sail rigged. The fastest vessels may use [[pump-jet engine]]s.{{Citation needed|date=April 2008}} Most commercial vessels have full hull-forms to maximize cargo capacity.{{Citation needed|date=April 2008}} Hulls are usually made of steel, although aluminum can be used on faster craft, and fiberglass on the smallest service vessels.{{Citation needed|date=April 2008}} Commercial vessels generally have a crew headed by a [[Captain (nautical)|captain]], with [[deck officer]]s and [[marine engineer]]s on larger vessels. Special-purpose vessels often have specialized crew if necessary, for example scientists aboard [[research vessel]]s.
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| Fishing boats are generally small, often little more than {{convert|30|m|ft|sp=us}} but up to {{convert|100|m|ft}} for a large tuna or [[whaling ship]]. Aboard a [[fish processing vessel]], the catch can be made ready for market and sold more quickly once the ship makes port. Special purpose vessels have special gear. For example, trawlers have winches and arms, stern-trawlers have a rear ramp, and tuna seiners have skiffs. In 2004, {{convert|85800000|t|LT ST|sigfig=3|lk=on}} of fish were caught in the marine capture fishery.<ref name="fao11">UNFAO, 2007, p. 11.</ref> [[Anchoveta]] represented the largest single catch at {{convert|10700000|t|LT ST|sigfig=3}}.<ref name="fao11"/> That year, the top ten marine capture species also included [[Alaska pollock]], [[Blue whiting]], [[Skipjack tuna]], [[Atlantic herring]], [[Chub mackerel]], [[Anchovy|Japanese anchovy]], [[Trachurus|Chilean jack mackerel]], [[Largehead hairtail]], and [[Yellowfin tuna]].<ref name="fao11"/> Other species including [[salmon]], [[shrimp]], [[lobster]], [[clam]]s, [[squid]] and [[crab]], are also commercially fished. Modern commercial fishermen use many methods. One is fishing by [[Fishing net|nets]], such as [[Seine fishing|purse seine]], beach seine, lift nets, [[gillnet]]s, or entangling nets. Another is [[trawl]]ing, including [[Bottom trawling|bottom trawl]]. [[Fish hook|Hooks]] and lines are used in methods like [[long-line fishing]] and [[hand-line fishing]]. Another method is the use of [[fishing trap]].
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| Cargo ships transport dry and liquid cargo. Dry cargo can be transported in bulk by [[bulk carrier]]s, packed directly onto a [[general cargo ship]] in break-bulk, packed in [[intermodal container]]s as aboard a [[container ship]], or driven aboard as in [[roll-on roll-off ship]]s. Liquid cargo is generally carried in bulk aboard tankers, such as [[oil tanker]]s which may include both crude and finished products of oil, [[chemical tanker]]s which may also carry vegetable oils other than chemicals and [[LPG/LNG tanker]]s, although smaller shipments may be carried on container ships in [[tank container]]s.
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| Passenger ships range in size from small river ferries to very large [[cruise ship]]s. This type of vessel includes [[ferry|ferries]], which move passengers and vehicles on short trips; [[ocean liner]]s, which carry passengers from one place to another; and [[cruise ship]]s, which carry passengers on voyages undertaken for pleasure, visiting several places and with leisure activities on board, often returning them to the port of embarkation. [[Riverboat]]s and [[ferry boat|inland ferries]] are specially designed to carry passengers, cargo, or both in the challenging river environment. Rivers present special hazards to vessels. They usually have varying water flows that alternately lead to high speed water flows or protruding rock hazards. Changing siltation patterns may cause the sudden appearance of shoal waters, and often floating or sunken logs and trees (called snags) can endanger the hulls and propulsion of riverboats. Riverboats are generally of shallow draft, being broad of beam and rather square in plan, with a low freeboard and high topsides. Riverboats can survive with this type of configuration as they do not have to withstand the high winds or large waves that are seen on large lakes, seas, or oceans.
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| [[File:Albatun Dod.jpg|thumb|The ''Albatun Dos'', a tuna boat at work near [[Victoria, Seychelles]]]]
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| [[Fishing vessel]]s are a subset of commercial vessels, but generally small in size and often subject to different regulations and classification. They can be categorized by several criteria: architecture, the type of fish they catch, the fishing method used, geographical origin, and technical features such as rigging. As of 2004, the world's fishing fleet consisted of some 4 million vessels.<ref name="fao25">UNFAO, 2007, p. 25.</ref> Of these, 1.3 million were decked vessels with enclosed areas and the rest were open vessels.<ref name="fao25"/> Most decked vessels were mechanized, but two-thirds of the open vessels were traditional craft propelled by sails and oars.<ref name="fao25"/> More than 60% of all existing large fishing vessels<ref>UNFAO defines a large fishing vessel as one with [[gross tonnage]] over 100 GT.</ref> were built in Japan, Peru, the Russian Federation, Spain or the United States of America.<ref name="fao28">UNFAO, 2007, p. 28.</ref>
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| ===Special purpose vessels===
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| {{Main|Weather ship}}
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| [[File:Polarfront.jpg|thumb|250px|The weather ship [[MS Polarfront|MS ''Polarfront'']] at sea.]]
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| A [[weather ship]] was a ship stationed in the [[ocean]] as a platform for surface and upper air meteorological observations for use in [[marine weather forecasting]]. Surface weather observations were taken hourly, and four radiosonde releases occurred daily.<ref name="cg">{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=T5A9LCujs08C&pg=PA129&lpg=PA129&dq=weather+ship+book#v=onepage&q=weather%20ship%20book&f=false|pages=127–130|author=Malcolm Francis Willoughby|title=The U.S. Coast Guard in World War II|publisher=|date=June 1980|isbn=978-0-405-13081-6|accessdate=2011-01-18}}</ref> It was also meant to aid in search and rescue operations and to support transatlantic flights.<ref name="cg"/><ref name="pop">{{cite journal | title = Britain's First Weather Ship | journal=Popular Mechanics | volume=89 | issue=1 | page= p. 136 | publisher=Hearst Magazines | date=January 1948 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=QtkDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA136 | issn=0032-4558 }}</ref> Proposed as early as 1927 by the [[aviation]] community,<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ICoDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA121&dq=weather+ship+network+book#v=onepage&q=weather%20ship%20network%20book&f=false|page=121|date=August 1927|accessdate=2011-01-18|journal=Popular Science|publisher=Popular Science Publishing Company, Inc.|volume=111|issue=2|title=The First Plane to Germany|author=George Lee Dowd, Jr.}}</ref> the establishment of weather ships proved to be so useful during [[World War II]] that the [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] (ICAO) established a global network of weather ships in 1948, with 13 to be supplied by the United States.<ref name="pop"/> This number was eventually negotiated down to nine.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=NEuXtdcroDMC&pg=PA14&dq=weather+ship+network+book#v=onepage&q=weather%20ship%20network%20book&f=false|title=Physics of the marine atmosphere|author=Hans Ulrich Roll|pages=14–15|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-593650-7|year=1965|accessdate=2011-01-18}}</ref>
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| The weather ship crews were normally at sea for three weeks at a time, returning to port for 10 day stretches.<ref name="cg"/> Weather ship observations proved to be helpful in wind and wave studies, as they did not avoid weather systems like other ships tended to for safety reasons.<ref name="wave">{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=8sHp9ml7G6YC&pg=PA371&lpg=PA371&dq=weather+ship+book#v=onepage&q=weather%20ship%20book&f=false|pages=369–371|title=Ocean surface waves: their physics and prediction|author=Stanislaw R. Massel|year=1996|publisher=World Scientific|isbn=978-981-02-2109-6|accessdate=2011-01-18}}</ref> They were also helpful in monitoring storms at sea, such as [[tropical cyclone]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/mwr/095/mwr-095-03-0121.pdf|title=Some Aspects of the Development of Hurricane Dorothy|author=Carl. O. Erickson|pages=121–130|journal=[[Monthly Weather Review]]|date=March 1967|volume=95|issue=3|accessdate=2011-01-18|doi=10.1175/1520-0493(1967)095<0121:SAOTDO>2.3.CO;2}}</ref> The removal of a weather ship became a negative factor in forecasts leading up to the [[Great Storm of 1987]].<ref name="Romeo">{{cite journal|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=nCLWnFozM6EC&pg=PA25&dq=weather+ship+network+book#v=onepage&q=weather%20ship%20network%20book&f=false|title=Romeo Would Have Spied the Storm|journal=New Scientist|date=1987-10-22|accessdate=2011-01-18|page=22|volume=116|issue=1583|publisher=IPC Magazines}}</ref> Beginning in the 1970s, their role became largely superseded by [[weather buoy]]s due to the ships' significant cost.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2zQrAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA40&dq=weather+ship+network+book#v=onepage&q=weather%20ship%20network%20book&f=false|page=40|author=National Research Council (U.S.). Ocean Science Committee, National Research Council (U.S.). Study Panel on Ocean Atmosphere Interaction|title=The role of the ocean in predicting climate: a report of workshops conducted by Study Panel on Ocean Atmosphere Interaction under the auspices of the Ocean Science Committee of the Ocean Affairs Board, Commission on Natural Resources, National Research Council|year=1974|accessdate=2011-01-18|publisher=National Academies}}</ref> The agreement of the use of weather ships by the international community ended in 1990. The last weather ship was ''[[Polarfront]]'', known as weather station M ("Mike"), which was put out of operation on 1 January 2010. Weather observations from ships continue from a fleet of [[Voluntary observing ship program|voluntary merchant vessels]] in routine commercial operation.
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| ===Naval vessels===
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| {{Main|Naval ship}}
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| [[File:Carrier.750pix.jpg|thumb|American [[aircraft carrier]] ''Harry S. Truman'' and a [[replenishment ship]]]]
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| Naval vessels are those used by a [[navy]] for [[military]] purposes.
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| There have been many [[List of types of naval vessels|types of naval vessel]]. Modern naval vessels can be broken down into three categories: [[List of naval ship classes in service|surface warships]], [[List of submarine classes in service|submarines]], and [[List of auxiliary ship classes in service|support and auxiliary vessels]].
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| Modern warships are generally divided into seven main categories: [[aircraft carrier]]s, [[cruiser]]s, [[destroyer]]s, [[frigate]]s, [[corvette]]s, [[submarine]]s and [[amphibious assault ship]]s. The distinction between cruisers, destroyers, frigates, and corvettes is not rigorous; the same vessel may be described differently in different navies. [[Battleship]]s were used during the [[Second World War]] and occasionally since then (the last battleships were removed from the [[U.S. Naval Vessel Register]] in March 2006), but were made obsolete by the use of carrier-borne aircraft and [[guided missile]]s.<ref name="usntypes">With the addition of corvettes, this is the categorization used at {{cite web |url=http://www.navy.mil/navydata/our_ships.asp |title=U.S. Navy Ships |accessdate=2008-04-20 |author=United States Navy |authorlink=United States Navy |publisher=United States Navy }}</ref>
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| Most military submarines are either [[attack submarine]]s or [[ballistic missile submarine]]s. Until the end of [[World War II]] the primary role of the diesel/electric submarine was anti-ship warfare, inserting and removing covert agents and military forces, and intelligence-gathering. With the development of the homing torpedo, better [[sonar]] systems, and [[Nuclear navy|nuclear propulsion]], submarines also became able to effectively hunt each other. The development of [[Submarine-launched ballistic missile|submarine-launched nuclear]] and [[cruise missiles]] gave submarines a substantial and long-ranged ability to attack both land and sea targets with a variety of weapons ranging from [[cluster bomb]]s to [[nuclear weapon]]s.
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| Most [[Navy|navies]] also include many types of support and auxiliary vessel, such as [[minesweeper (ship)|minesweeper]]s, [[patrol boat]]s, [[OPV (naval)|offshore patrol vessels]], [[replenishment ship]]s, and [[hospital ship]]s which are designated [[healthcare|medical treatment]] facilities.<ref>[http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=hospital%20ship Hospital Ship] (definition via [[WordNet]], [[Princeton University]])</ref>
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| Fast combat vessels such as cruisers and destroyers usually have fine hulls to maximize speed and maneuverability.<ref name="cut224">Cutter, 1999, p. 224.</ref> They also usually have advanced electronics and communication systems, as well as weapons.
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| ==Architecture==
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| {{Further|Naval architecture}}
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| Some components exist in vessels of any size and purpose. Every vessel has a hull of sorts. Every vessel has some sort of propulsion, whether it's a pole, an ox, or a nuclear reactor. Most vessels have some sort of steering system. Other characteristics are common, but not as universal, such as compartments, holds, a superstructure, and equipment such as anchors and winches.
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| ===Hull===
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| [[File:CargoVslBadWeather.JPG|thumb|right|A ship's hull endures harsh conditions at sea, as illustrated by this [[reefer ship]] in bad weather.]]
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| For a ship to float, its weight must be less than that of the water displaced by the ship's hull.<ref>{{cite web|title=Boats - Why do they float?|url=http://www.ypte.org.uk/environmental/boats-why-do-they-float-/107|publisher=Environmental Involvement for Young People|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> There are many types of hulls, from logs lashed together to form a raft to the advanced hulls of [[America's Cup]] sailboats. A vessel may have a single hull (called a monohull design), two in the case of [[catamaran]]s, or three in the case of [[trimaran]]s. Vessels with more than three hulls are rare, but some experiments have been conducted with designs such as pentamarans. Multiple hulls are generally parallel to each other and connected by rigid arms.
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| Hulls have several elements. The [[bow (ship)|bow]] is the foremost part of the hull. Many ships feature a [[bulbous bow]]. The [[keel]] is at the very bottom of the hull, extending the entire length of the ship. The rear part of the hull is known as the [[stern]], and many hulls have a flat back known as a [[transom (nautical)|transom]]. Common hull appendages include [[propeller]]s for propulsion, [[rudder]]s for steering, and [[Stabilizer (ship)|stabilizers]] to quell a ship's rolling motion. Other hull features can be related to the vessel's work, such as fishing gear and [[sonar|sonar dome]]s.
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| Hulls are subject to various hydrostatic and hydrodynamic constraints. The key hydrostatic constraint is that it must be able to support the entire weight of the boat, and maintain stability even with often unevenly distributed weight. Hydrodynamic constraints include the ability to withstand shock waves, weather collisions and groundings.
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| Older ships and pleasure craft often have or had wooden hulls. Steel is used for most commercial vessels. Aluminium is frequently used for fast vessels, and [[composite material]]s are often found in sailboats and pleasure craft. Some ships have been made with [[Concrete ship|concrete hulls]].
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| ===Propulsion systems===
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| [[File:Two Main Engines, V12.jpg|thumb|right|A ship's engineroom]]
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| {{Main|Marine propulsion}}
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| Propulsion systems for ships fall into three categories: human propulsion, [[sailing]], and mechanical propulsion. Human propulsion includes [[Watercraft rowing|rowing]], which was used even on large [[galley]]s. Propulsion by sail generally consists of a sail hoisted on an erect mast, supported by stays and spars and controlled by ropes. Sail systems were the dominant form of propulsion until the 19th century. They are now generally used for recreation and competition, although [[Future Boat Developments|experimental sail systems]], such as the [[turbosail]]s, [[rotorsail]]s, and [[wingsail]]s have been used on larger modern vessels for fuel savings.
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| Mechanical propulsion systems generally consist of a motor or engine turning a [[propeller]], or less frequently, an [[impeller]] or [[Wave power ship|wave propulsion fins]]. [[Steam engine]]s were first used for this purpose, but have mostly been replaced by [[two-stroke engine|two-stroke]] or [[four-stroke engine|four-stroke]] diesel engines, outboard motors, and [[gas turbine engine]]s on faster ships. [[Nuclear marine propulsion|Nuclear reactors]] producing steam are used to propel [[warship]]s and [[icebreaker]]s, and there have been attempts to utilize them to power commercial vessels (see [[NS Savannah|NS ''Savannah'']]).
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| In addition to traditional fixed and controllable pitch propellers there are many specialized variations, such as contra-rotating and nozzle-style propellers. Most vessels have a single propeller, but some large vessels may have up to four propellers supplemented with [[bow thruster|transverse thrusters]] for maneuvring at ports. The propeller is connected to the main engine via a propeller shaft and, in case of medium- and high-speed engines, a reduction gearbox. Some modern vessels have a [[diesel-electric transmission|diesel-electric powertrain]] in which the propeller is turned by an [[electric motor]] powered by the ship's generators.
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| ===Steering systems===
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| [[File:Ferry-rudder-and-propeller.jpg|thumb|right|The rudder and propeller on a newly built [[Ferryboat|ferry]]]]
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| For ships with independent propulsion systems for each side, such as manual oars or some [[paddle steamer|paddles]],<ref>Almost all paddle steamers had a single engine with their paddles permanently coupled, without any clutches, and so could not be used for steering. Only a few examples with separate engines were steerable. The [[Royal Navy]] however operated diesel-electric harbour tugs with paddles into the 1970s, for their superior maneuverability.</ref> steering systems may not be necessary. In most designs, such as boats propelled by engines or sails, a steering system becomes necessary. The most common is a rudder, a submerged plane located at the rear of the hull. Rudders are rotated to generate a lateral force which turns the boat. Rudders can be rotated by a [[tiller]], manual wheels, or electro-hydraulic systems. [[Autopilot]] systems combine mechanical rudders with navigation systems. [[Ducted propeller]]s are sometimes used for steering.
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| Some propulsion systems are inherently steering systems. Examples include the [[outboard motor]], the [[bow thruster]], and the [[Z-drive]].
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| ===Holds, compartments, and the superstructure===
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| Larger boats and ships generally have multiple decks and compartments. Separate [[berthing]]s and [[Head (watercraft)|head]]s are found on sailboats over about {{convert|25|ft|m}}. Fishing boats and cargo ships typically have one or more cargo holds. Most larger vessels have an engine room, a [[galley (kitchen)|galley]], and various compartments for work. Tanks are used to store fuel, engine oil, and fresh water. Ballast tanks are equipped to change a ship's trim and modify its stability.
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| Superstructures are found above the main deck. On sailboats, these are usually very low. On modern cargo ships, they are almost always located near the ship's stern. On passenger ships and warships, the superstructure generally extends far forward.
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| ===Equipment===
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| Shipboard equipment varies from ship to ship depending on such factors as the ship's era, design, area of operation, and purpose. Some types of equipment that are widely found include:
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| * [[Mast (sail)|Mast]]s can be the home of antennas, navigation lights, radar transponders, fog signals, and similar devices often required by law.
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| * [[Ground tackle]] includes equipment such as mooring winches, windlasses, and anchors. Anchors are used to [[mooring (watercraft)|moor]] ships in shallow water. They are connected to the ship by a rope or chain. On larger vessels, the chain runs through a [[hawsepipe]].
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| * Cargo equipment such as [[Crane (machine)|cranes]] and [[cargo boom]]s are used to load and unload cargo and ship's stores.
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| * Safety equipment such as [[Lifeboat (shipboard)|lifeboat]]s, [[liferaft]]s, and [[survival suit]]s are carried aboard many vessels for emergency use.
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| | |
| ==Design considerations==
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| | |
| ===Hydrostatics===
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| [[File:LCAC.JPG|thumb|right|Some vessels, like the [[Air-cushioned landing craft|LCAC]], can operate in a non-displacement mode.]]
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| Boats and ships are kept on (or slightly above) the water in three ways:
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| * For most vessels, known as displacement vessels, the vessel's weight is offset by that of the water displaced by the hull.
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| * For planing ships and boats, such as the hydrofoil, the lift developed by the movement of the foil through the water increases with the vessel's speed, until the vessel is foilborne.
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| * For non-displacement craft such as [[hovercraft]] and [[air-cushion vehicle]]s, the vessel is suspended over the water by a cushion of high-pressure air it projects downwards against the surface of the water.
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| A vessel is in equilibrium when the upwards and downwards forces are of equal magnitude. As a vessel is lowered into the water its weight remains constant but the corresponding weight of water displaced by its hull increases. When the two forces are equal, the boat floats. If weight is evenly distributed throughout the vessel, it floats without trim or heel.
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| A vessel's stability is considered in both this [[Initial stability|hydrostatic]] sense as well as a [[Ship stability|hydrodynamic]] sense, when subjected to movement, rolling and pitching, and the action of waves and wind. Stability problems can lead to excessive pitching and rolling, and eventually capsizing and sinking.
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| ===Hydrodynamics===
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| [[File:Dona Delfina at Mazatlan.jpg|thumb|right|Fishing boat ''Dona Delfina'']]
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| The advance of a vessel through water is resisted by the water. This resistance can be broken down into several components, the main ones being the friction of the water on the hull and [[wave making resistance]]. To reduce resistance and therefore increase the speed for a given power, it is necessary to reduce the wetted surface and use submerged hull shapes that produce low amplitude waves. To do so, high-speed vessels are often more slender, with fewer or smaller appendages. The friction of the water is also reduced by regular maintenance of the hull to remove the sea creatures and algae that accumulate there. [[Antifouling]] paint is commonly used to assist in this. Advanced designs such as the [[bulbous bow]] assist in decreasing wave resistance.
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| A simple way of considering wave-making resistance is to look at the hull in relation to its wake. At speeds lower than the wave propagation speed, the wave rapidly dissipates to the sides. As the hull approaches the wave propagation speed, however, the wake at the bow begins to build up faster than it can dissipate, and so it grows in [[amplitude]]. Since the water is not able to "get out of the way of the hull fast enough", the hull, in essence, has to climb over or push through the bow wave. This results in an [[exponential function|exponential]] increase in resistance with increasing speed.
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| This [[hull speed]] is found by the formula:
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| <math>\mbox{knots} \approx 1.34 \times \sqrt{L \mbox{ft}}</math> | |
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| or, in [[metric system|metric]] units:
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| <math>\mbox{knots} \approx 2.5 \times \sqrt{L \mbox{m}}</math>
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| where ''L'' is the length of the waterline in feet or meters.
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| When the vessel exceeds a speed/length ratio of 0.94, it starts to outrun most of its [[bow wave]], and the hull actually settles slightly in the water as it is now only supported by two wave peaks. As the vessel exceeds a speed/length ratio of 1.34, the hull speed, the wavelength is now longer than the hull, and the stern is no longer supported by the wake, causing the stern to squat, and the bow rise. The hull is now starting to climb its own bow wave, and resistance begins to increase at a very high rate. While it is possible to drive a displacement hull faster than a speed/length ratio of 1.34, it is prohibitively expensive to do so. Most large vessels operate at speed/length ratios well below that level, at speed/length ratios of under 1.0.
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| [[File:Brosen shipsmovemensonthewave.svg|thumb||left|Vessels move along the three axes: 1. heave, 2. sway, 3. surge, 4. yaw, 5. pitch, 6. roll]]
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| For large projects with adequate funding, hydrodynamic resistance can be tested experimentally in a hull testing pool or using tools of [[computational fluid dynamics]].
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| Vessels are also subject to [[ocean surface wave]]s and [[sea swell]] as well as effects of [[wind]] and [[weather]]. These movements can be stressful for passengers and equipment, and must be controlled if possible. The rolling movement can be controlled, to an extent, by ballasting or by devices such as [[Stabilizer (ship)|fin stabilizers]]. Pitching movement is more difficult to limit and can be dangerous if the bow submerges in the waves, a phenomenon called pounding. Sometimes, ships must change course or speed to stop violent rolling or pitching.
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| How it has been convincingly shown in scientific studies of the 21st century,<ref name="a-Feigin-2001ru">{{cite journal |last1 = Feigin |first1 = M I |title = Проявление эффектов бифуркационной памяти в поведении динамической системы | trans_title = Manifestation of the bifurcation memory effect in behaviour of dynamic system |url = http://web.archive.org/web/20071130004824/http://journal.issep.rssi.ru/ |journal = Soros Educational Journal |type = journal |year = 2001 |volume = 7 |issue = 3 |pages = 121–127 |language = ru |doi = |issn = }}</ref><ref name="a-Feigin-2004">{{cite journal |last1 = Feigin |first1 = M |authorlink1 = |last2 = Kagan |first2 = M |authorlink2 = |title = Emergencies as a manifestation of effect of bifurcation memory in controlled unstable systems |url = |journal = International Journal of Bifurcation and Chaos |type = journal |year = 2004 |volume = 14 |issue = 7 |pages = 2439–2447 |doi = 10.1142/S0218127404010746 |issn = 0218-1274}}</ref> controllability of some vessels decreases dramatically in some cases that are conditioned by effects of the [[bifurcation memory]]. This class of vessels includes ships with high manoeuvring capabilities, aircraft and controlled underwater vehicles designed to be unstable in steady-state motion that are interesting in terms of applications. These features must be considered in designing ships and in their control in critical situations.
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| ==Lifecycle==
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| A ship will pass through several stages during its career. The first is usually an initial contract to build the ship, the details of which can vary widely based on relationships between the [[shipowner]]s, operators, [[naval architect|designers]] and the [[shipyard]]. Then, the design phase carried out by a naval architect. Then the ship is constructed in a shipyard. After construction, the vessel is launched and goes into service. Ships end their careers in a number of ways, ranging from [[shipwreck]]s to service as a [[museum ship]] to [[Ship breaking|the scrapyard]].
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| [[File:Lines plan en.svg|thumb|left|upright|Lines plan for the hull of a basic [[cargo ship]]]]
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| ===Design===
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| {{See also|Naval architecture}}
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| A vessel's design starts with a specification, which a [[naval architect]] uses to create a project outline, assess required dimensions, and create a basic layout of spaces and a rough displacement. After this initial rough draft, the architect can create an initial hull design, a general profile and an initial overview of the ship's propulsion. At this stage, the designer can iterate on the ship's design, adding detail and refining the design at each stage.
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| The designer will typically produce an overall plan, a general specification describing the peculiarities of the vessel, and construction blueprints to be used at the building site. Designs for larger or more complex vessels may also include sail plans, electrical schematics, and plumbing and ventilation plans.
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| As environmental laws are strictening, ship designers need to create their design in such a way that the ship -when it nears its end-of-term- can be [[Ship breaking|disassmbled]] or [[Ship disposal|disposed]] easily and that waste is reduced to a minimum.
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| [[File:Freedom of the seas construction.jpg|thumb|upright|[[MS Freedom of the Seas|MS ''Freedom of the Seas'']] under construction in a shipyard in [[Turku]].]]
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| ===Construction===
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| {{Main|Shipbuilding}}
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| Ship construction takes place in a [[shipyard]], and can last from a few months for a unit produced in series, to several years to reconstruct a wooden boat like the frigate ''Hermione'', to more than 10 years for an aircraft carrier. Hull materials and vessel size play a large part in determining the method of construction. The hull of a mass-produced fiberglass sailboat is constructed from a mold, while the steel hull of a cargo ship is made from large sections welded together as they are built.
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| [[File:Brosen northern side lauching2.jpg|thumb|left|A [[Ship naming and launching|ship launching]] at the Northern Shipyard in [[Gdansk, Poland]]]]
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| [[File:Cochinshipyard.jpg|thumb|right|A shipyard at [[Kerala]], Southern India]]
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| Generally, construction starts with the hull, and on vessels over about {{convert|30|m|ft|0|sp=us}}, by the laying of the keel. This is done in a [[drydock]] or on land. Once the hull is assembled and painted, it is launched. The last stages, such as raising the superstructure and adding equipment and accommodation, can be done after the vessel is afloat.
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| Once completed, the vessel is delivered to the customer. [[Ship naming and launching|Ship launching]] is often a ceremony of some significance, and is usually when the vessel is formally named. A typical small rowboat can cost under US$100, $1,000 for a small speedboat, tens of thousands of dollars for a cruising sailboat, and about $2,000,000 for a [[Vendée Globe]] class sailboat. A {{convert|25|m|ft|sp=us}} trawler may cost $2.5 million, and a 1,000-person-capacity high-speed passenger ferry can cost in the neighborhood of $50 million. A ship's cost partly depends on its complexity: a small, [[general cargo ship]] will cost $20 million, a [[Panamax]]-sized [[bulk carrier]] around $35 million, a [[supertanker]] around $105 million and a large [[LNG carrier]] nearly $200 million. The most expensive ships generally are so because of the cost of embedded electronics: a {{sclass|Seawolf|submarine}} costs around $2 billion, and an aircraft carrier goes for about $3.5 billion.
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| ===Repair and conversion===
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| [[File:Able-seaman-scaling-winch.JPG|thumb|An [[able seaman]] uses a [[needlegun scaler]] while refurbishing a mooring winch at sea]]
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| Ships undergo nearly constant maintenance during their career, whether they be underway, pierside, or in some cases, in periods of reduced operating status between charters or shipping seasons.
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| Most ships, however, require trips to special facilities such as a [[drydock]] at regular intervals. Tasks often done at drydock include removing biological growths on the hull, [[sandblasting]] and repainting the hull, and replacing [[sacrificial anode]]s used to protect submerged equipment from corrosion. Major repairs to the propulsion and steering systems as well as major electrical systems are also often performed at dry dock.
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| Vessels that sustain major damage at sea may be repaired at a facility equipped for major repairs, such as a shipyard. Ships may also be converted for a new purpose: [[oil tanker]]s are often converted into [[floating production storage and offloading unit]]s.
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| [[File:Boat cemetery, Finistere, France.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A ship graveyard in France]]
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| ===End of service===
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| {{Main|Ship disposal}}
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| Most ocean-going cargo ships have a life expectancy of between 20 and 30 years. A sailboat made of plywood or fiberglass can last between 30 and 40 years. Solid wooden ships can last much longer but require regular maintenance. Carefully maintained steel-hulled yachts can have a lifespan of over 100 years.
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| As ships age, forces such as corrosion, osmosis, and rotting compromise hull strength, and a vessel becomes too dangerous to sail. At this point, it can be [[scuttling|scuttled]] at sea or [[Ship breaking|scrapped]] by [[ship breaking|shipbreakers]]. Ships can also be used as [[museum ships]], or expended to construct [[Breakwater (structure)|breakwaters]] or [[artificial reef]]s.
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| Many ships do not make it to the scrapyard, and are lost in fires, collisions, [[ship grounding|grounding]], or sinking at sea. There are more than 3 million [[shipwreck]]s on the ocean floor, the United Nations estimates.<ref>{{cite news|last=Arango |first=Tim |url=http://money.cnn.tv/2007/09/10/news/companies/odyssey_treasure_fortune.fortune/index.htm |title=Curse of the $500 million sunken treasure |publisher=Money.cnn.tv |date=2007-09-11 |accessdate=2009-09-19}}</ref> The Allies lost some 5,150 ships during [[World War II]].<ref>''Sea Lanes in Wartime - The American Experience 1775-1945'', 2nd edition, by Albion, Robert Greenhalgh and Pope, Jennie Barnes, Archon Books, 1968.</ref>
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| == Measuring ships ==
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| <!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:plimsoll.jpg|thumb|Plimsoll mark or load line.]] -->
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| One can [[Molded depth|measure ships]] in terms of overall length, length of the ship at the waterline, beam (breadth), depth (distance between the crown of the weather deck and the top of the keelson), [[Draft (hull)|draft]] (distance between the highest waterline and the bottom of the ship) and [[tonnage]]. A number of different tonnage definitions exist and are used when describing merchant ships for the purpose of tolls, taxation, etc.
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| In Britain until Samuel Plimsoll's [[Merchant Shipping Act of 1876]], ship-owners could load their vessels until their decks were almost awash, resulting in a dangerously unstable condition. Anyone who signed on to such a ship for a voyage and, upon realizing the danger, chose to leave the ship, could end up in [[jail]]. Plimsoll, a [[Member of Parliament]], realised the problem and engaged some [[engineer]]s to derive a fairly simple [[formula]] to determine the position of a line on the side of any specific ship's hull which, when it reached the surface of the water during loading of cargo, meant the ship had reached its maximum safe loading level. To this day, that mark, called the "[[waterline|Plimsoll Line]]", exists on ships' sides, and consists of a [[circle]] with a horizontal line through the centre. On the Great Lakes of North America the circle is replaced with a diamond. Because different types of water (summer, fresh, tropical fresh, winter north Atlantic) have different densities, subsequent regulations required painting a group of lines forward of the Plimsoll mark to indicate the safe depth (or freeboard above the surface) to which a specific ship could load in water of various densities. Hence the "ladder" of lines seen forward of the Plimsoll mark to this day. This is called the "[[freeboard mark]]" or "[[waterline#Standard load line marks|load line mark]]" in the [[marine industry]].
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| | |
| ==Ship pollution==
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| Ship pollution is the pollution of air and water by [[shipping]]. It is a problem that has been accelerating as trade has become increasingly globalized, posing an increasing threat to the world’s oceans and waterways as [[globalization]] continues. It is expected that, “...shipping traffic to and from the [[USA]] is projected to double by 2020."<ref name="Watson">Watson, T. (2004, August 30). Ship pollution clouds USA's skies. ''USA Today''. Retrieved November 1, 2006, from [http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2004-08-30-ship-pollution_x.htm USAtoday.com]</ref> Because of increased traffic in ocean [[port]]s, pollution from ships also directly affects coastal areas. The pollution produced affects [[biodiversity]], climate, food, and human health. However, the degree to which humans are polluting and how it affects the world is highly debated and has been a hot international topic for the past 30 years.
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| ===Oil spills===
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| {{Main|Oil spill}}
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| [[File:OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg|thumb|right| The [[Exxon Valdez oil spill|''Exxon Valdez'' spilled]] {{convert|10800000|USgal|impgal L|sigfig=4}} of oil into Alaska's [[Prince William Sound]].<ref>{{cite web| title = Frequently asked questions about the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill|url=http://www.evostc.state.ak.us/History/FAQ.htm|publisher =State of Alaska}}</ref>]]
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| Oil spills have devastating effects on the environment. Crude oil contains [[polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons]] (PAHs) which are very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the [[sediment]] and marine environment.<ref name = "Panetta"/> Marine species constantly exposed to PAHs can exhibit developmental problems, susceptibility to disease, and abnormal reproductive cycles.
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| By the sheer amount of oil carried, modern oil tankers must be considered something of a threat to the environment. An oil tanker can carry {{convert|2|Moilbbl|m3|sigfig=4}} of crude oil, or {{convert|84000000|USgal|impgal L|sigfig=4}}<!-- See [[Talk:ship#conversions]] -->. This is more than six times the amount spilled in the widely known [[Exxon Valdez oil spill|''Exxon Valdez'' incident]]. In this spill, the ship ran aground and dumped {{convert|10800000|USgal|impgal L|sigfig=4}} of oil into the ocean in March 1989. Despite efforts of scientists, managers, and volunteers, over 400,000 [[seabirds]], about 1,000 [[sea otters]], and immense numbers of fish were killed.<ref name="Panetta"/>
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| The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation has researched 9,351 accidental spills since 1974.<ref name="itopf">{{cite web|url=http://www.itopf.com/information-services/data-and-statistics/statistics/ |title=International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Statistics |publisher=Itopf.com |date=2005-06-09 |accessdate=2009-04-21}}</ref> According to this study, most spills result from routine operations such as loading cargo, discharging cargo, and taking on fuel oil.<ref name="itopf"/> 91% of the operational oil spills were small, resulting in less than 7 tons per spill.<ref name="itopf"/> Spills resulting from accidents like collisions, groundings, hull failures, and explosions are much larger, with 84% of these involving losses of over 700 tons.<ref name="itopf"/>
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| | |
| Following the ''Exxon Valdez'' spill, the United States passed the [[Oil Pollution Act of 1990]] (OPA-90), which included a stipulation that all tankers entering its waters be [[Double-hulled tanker|double-hulled]] by 2015. Following the sinkings of the ''[[Erika (tanker)|Erika]]'' (1999) and ''[[Prestige oil spill|Prestige]]'' (2002), the [[European Union]] passed its own stringent anti-pollution packages (known as Erika I, II, and III), which require all tankers entering its waters to be double-hulled by 2010. The Erika packages are controversial because they introduced the new legal concept of "serious negligence".<ref>{{cite book |author=European Parliament |authorlink=European Parliament |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Directive 2005/35/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 September 2005 on ship-source pollution and on the introduction of penalties for infringements|year=2005 |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2005:255:0011:01:EN:HTML |accessdate=2008-02-22 |edition= |series= |date= |month= |publisher= |location= |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= }}</ref>
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| ===Ballast water===
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| {{Main|Ballast water discharge and the environment}}
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| [[File:Ship pumping ballast water.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A cargo ship pumps ballast water over the side]]
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| When a large vessel such as a [[container ship]] or an oil tanker unloads cargo, seawater is pumped into other compartments in the hull to help stabilize and balance the ship. During loading, this ballast water is pumped out from these compartments.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-22397076 ''Scientists map global routes of ship-borne invasive species'' (BBC News)]</ref>
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| One of the problems with ballast water transfer is the transport of harmful organisms. Meinesz<ref name="Meinesz">Meinesz, A. (2003). Deep Sea Invasion. ''The Impact of Invasive Species''. PBS: NOVA.
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| Retrieved November 26, 2006, from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/algae/impact.html</ref> believes that one of the worst cases of a single invasive species causing harm to an ecosystem can be attributed to a seemingly harmless [[jellyfish]]. ''[[Mnemiopsis leidyi]]'', a species of comb jellyfish that inhabits estuaries from the United States to the Valdés peninsula in [[Argentina]] along the [[Atlantic]] coast, has caused notable damage in the [[Black Sea]]. It was first introduced in 1982, and thought to have been transported to the Black Sea in a ship’s ballast water. The population of the jellyfish shot up exponentially and, by 1988, it was wreaking havoc upon the local [[fishing]] industry. "The [[anchovy]] catch fell from {{convert|204000|t|ST LT|sigfig=3|lk=on}} in 1984 to {{convert|200|t|ST LT|sigfig=3}} in 1993; sprat from {{convert|24600|t|ST LT|sigfig=3}} in 1984 to {{convert|12000|t|ST LT|sigfig=3}} in 1993; [[horse mackerel (disambiguation)|horse mackerel]] from {{convert|4000|t|ST LT|sigfig=3}} in 1984 to zero in 1993."<ref name="Meinesz"/> Now that the jellyfish have exhausted the [[zooplankton]], including fish larvae, their numbers have fallen dramatically, yet they continue to maintain a stranglehold on the [[ecosystem]]. Recently the jellyfish have been discovered in the [[Caspian Sea]]. Invasive species can take over once occupied areas, facilitate the spread of new [[diseases]], introduce new [[Genetics|genetic]] material, alter landscapes and jeopardize the ability of native species to obtain food. "On land and in the sea, invasive species are responsible for about 137 billion dollars in lost revenue and management costs in the U.S. each year."<ref name="Panetta">Panetta, L. E. (Chair) (2003). America's living oceans: charting a course for sea change [Electronic Version, CD] Pew Oceans Commission.</ref>
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| Ballast and [[bilge]] discharge from ships can also spread human [[pathogens]] and other harmful diseases and [[toxins]] potentially causing health issues for humans and marine life alike.<ref name="NRC">National Research Council, Committee on the Ocean's Role in Human Health, Ocean Studies Board, Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources. (1999). ''From monsoons to microbes: understanding the ocean's role in human health''. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press</ref> Discharges into coastal waters, along with other sources of marine pollution, have the potential to be toxic to marine plants, animals, and [[microorganisms]], causing alterations such as changes in growth, disruption of [[hormone]] cycles, birth defects, suppression of the [[immune system]], and disorders resulting in [[cancer]], [[tumors]], and genetic abnormalities or even death.<ref name="Panetta"/>
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| ===Exhaust emissions===
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| [[File:K-stack.jpg|thumb|upright|Exhaust stack on a container ship.]]
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| [[exhaust gas|Exhaust]] emissions from ships are considered to be a significant source of [[air pollution]]. “Seagoing vessels are responsible for an estimated 14 percent of emissions of nitrogen from fossil fuels and 16 percent of the emissions of sulfur from petroleum uses into the atmosphere.”<ref name="Panetta"/> In Europe ships make up a large percentage of the sulfur introduced to the air, “...as much sulfur as all the cars, [[lorries]] and factories in Europe put together.”<ref name="Harrabin">Harrabin, R. (2003, June 25). EU faces ship clean-up call. ''BBC News''. Retrieved November 1, 2006, from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3019686.stm</ref> “By 2010, up to 40% of air pollution over land could come from ships.”<ref name="Harrabin"/> Sulfur in the air creates [[acid rain]] which damages crops and buildings. When inhaled sulfur is known to cause [[respiratory]] problems and increase the risk of a [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]].<ref name="Harrabin"/>
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| ===Ship breaking===
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| {{Main|Ship breaking}}
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| '''Ship breaking''' or '''ship demolition''' is a type of [[ship disposal]] involving the breaking up of ships for [[scrap]] [[recycling]], with the hulls being discarded in [[ship graveyard]]s. Most ships have a lifespan of a few decades before there is so much wear that refitting and repair becomes uneconomical. Ship breaking allows materials from the ship, especially steel, to be reused.
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| [[File:Shipbreakingbangladesh2.jpg|thumb|left|Ship breaking near [[Chittagong]], [[Bangladesh]]]]
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| In addition to steel and other useful materials, however, ships (particularly older vessels) can contain many substances that are banned or considered dangerous in [[developed countries]]. [[Asbestos]] and [[polychlorinated biphenyls]] (PCBs) are typical examples. Asbestos was used heavily in ship construction until it was finally banned in most of the developed world in the mid 1980s. Currently, the costs associated with removing asbestos, along with the potentially expensive insurance and health risks, have meant that ship-breaking in most developed countries is no longer economically viable. Removing the metal for scrap can potentially cost more than the scrap value of the metal itself. In the developing world, however, shipyards can operate without the risk of [[Personal injury|personal injury lawsuits]] or [[Workers' compensation|workers' health claims]], meaning many of these shipyards may operate with high health risks. Protective equipment is sometimes absent or inadequate. Dangerous vapors and fumes from burning materials can be inhaled, and dusty asbestos-laden areas around such breakdown locations are commonplace.
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| Aside from the health of the yard workers, in recent years, ship breaking has also become an issue of major [[environmentalism|environmental concern]]. Many developing nations, in which ship breaking yards are located, have lax or no [[environmental law]], enabling large quantities of highly toxic materials to escape into the environment and causing serious health problems among ship breakers, the local population and wildlife. Environmental campaign groups such as [[Greenpeace]] have made the issue a high priority for their campaigns.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.greenpeaceweb.org/shipbreak/ |title=Shipbreaking |publisher=Greenpeace |date=March 16, 2006 |accessdate=2007-08-27}}</ref>
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| ==Buoyancy==
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| {{see also|Buoyancy}}
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| | |
| A floating boat [[displacement (fluid)|displaces]] its weight in water. The material of the boat hull may be denser than water, but if this is the case then it forms only the outer layer. If the boat floats, the mass of the boat (plus contents) ''as a whole'' divided by the volume ''below the waterline'' is equal to the [[density]] of water (1 kg/l). If weight is added to the boat, the volume below the waterline will increase to keep the weight balance equal, and so the boat sinks a little to compensate.
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| ==See also==
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| {{Portal|Nautical}}
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| | |
| {{div col}}
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| * [[Airship]]
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| * [[Chartering (shipping)]]
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| * [[Dynamic positioning]]
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| * [[Environmental issues with shipping]]
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| * [[Factory ship]]
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| * [[Ferry]]
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| * [[Flag State]]<!-- This should absolutely be covered within this article itself, not as a see also! -->
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| * [[Glossary of nautical terms]]
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| * [[Marine electronics]]
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| * [[Marine fuel management]]
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| * [[Maritime history]]
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| * [[Maritime law]]
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| * [[Mother ship]]
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| * [[Naval architecture]]
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| * [[Navy]]
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| * [[Propulsion system]]
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| * [[Sailing]]
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| * [[Sailing ship]]
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| * [[Sailor]]
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| * [[Ship burial]]
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| * [[Ship transport]]
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| * [[Shipwreck]]
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| * [[Spacecraft|Spaceship]]
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| * [[Train ferry]]
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| * [[Vessel safety survey]]
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| * [[Whaler]]
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| | |
| '''Model ships'''
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| * [[Ship model]]
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| * [[Ship model basin]]
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| * [[Ship replica]]
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| '''Lists'''
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| * [[List of civilian nuclear ships]]
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| * [[List of fictional ships]]
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| * [[List of historical ship types]]
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| * [[List of ships]]
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| * [[List of shipwrecks]]
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| * [[List of the world's largest cruise ships]]
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| * [[List of world's largest ships by gross tonnage]]
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| * [[List of world's longest ships]]
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| {{div col end}}
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| ==Notes==
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| {{Reflist|2}}
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| ==References==
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| * {{cite book
| |
| | first = Steven
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| | last = Anzovin
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| | authorlink =
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| | title = [[Famous First Facts]] (International Edition)
| |
| | publisher = [[H. W. Wilson Company]]
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| | url =
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| | location=
| |
| | year = 2000
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| * {{cite book
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| *{{cite book
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| * {{cite book |author=Cutler, Thomas J. |title=The Bluejacket's Manual (Bluejacket's Manual, 22nd ed) |publisher=Naval Institute Press |location=Annapolis, Md |year=1999 |pages= |isbn=1-55750-065-7 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}
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| * {{cite web |url=https://exchange.dnv.com/exchange/main.aspx?extool=vessel&subview=summary&vesselid=16864 |title=Knock Nevis |author=Det Norske Veritas |authorlink=Det Norske Veritas |year=2008 |work=DNV Exchange |publisher=Det Norske Veritas }}
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| * {{cite encyclopedia
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| | author = Encyclopædia Britannica
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| | url = http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/User:Tim_Starling/ScanSet_TIFF_demo
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| * {{cite encyclopedia
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| | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica
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| * {{cite book |author=Fisheries and Aquacultures Department |editor= |others= |title=The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0699e/A0699E00.HTM |year=2007 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |location=Rome |isbn= |chapter=The Status of the Fishing Fleet|chapterurl=http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0699e/A0699E04.htm#4.1.5 }}
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| * {{cite book |last=George| first=William |title=Stability and Trim for the Ship's Officer |year= 2005|publisher=Cornell Maritime Press |location=Centreville, MD |isbn=978-0-87033-564-8 }}
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| * {{cite book |last=Hayler |first=William B. |coauthors=Keever, John M. |title=American Merchant Seaman's Manual |year=2003 |publisher= Cornell Maritime Pr |isbn= 0-87033-549-9 }}
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| * {{cite book |first=Mark| last=Huber |title=Tanker operations: a handbook for the person-in-charge (PIC) |publisher=Cornell Maritime Press |location=Cambridge, MD |year=2001 |isbn=0-87033-528-6 |doi=}}
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| * {{cite book |author=Lavery, Brian |title=Ship: The Epic Story of Maritime Adventure (Smithsonian) |publisher=DK Publishing Inc |location=New York |year=2004 |pages= |isbn=0-7566-0496-6}}
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| * {{cite book
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| *{{cite web
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| * {{cite web |url=http://www.osg.com/uploadedFiles/2222008FleetlistDownload.xls |title=Overseas Shipholding Group Fleet List |author=Overseas Shipholding Group |date=2008-02-22|publisher=Overseas Shipholding Group }}
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| * {{cite book |author=Sawyer, L. A.; Mitchell, W. O. |title=Sailing ship to supertanker: the hundred-year story of British Esso and its ships |publisher=Terence Dalton |location=Lavenham, Suffolk |year=1987 |isbn=0-86138-055-X |doi=}}
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| * {{cite journal |last=Singh |first=Baljit |date=July 11, 1999|title=The world's biggest ship |journal=The Times (of India) |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/1999/99jul11/sunday/head3.htm |accessdate= 2008-04-07 }}
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| * {{cite book | last = Turpin | first = Edward A. | coauthors = McEwen, William A. | title = Merchant Marine Officers' Handbook | edition = 4th | year = 1980 | month = | publisher =Cornell Maritime Press | location = Centreville, MD | isbn = 0-87033-056-X | chapterurl = }}
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| * {{cite book |author=United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) |authorlink=United Nations Conference on Trade and Development |editor= |others= |title=Review of Maritime Transport, 2006 |url=http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/rmt2006_en.pdf |year=2006 |publisher=United Nations |location=New York and Geneva |format= PDF |isbn= }}
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| * {{cite book |author=United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) |authorlink=United Nations Conference on Trade and Development |editor= |others= |title=Review of Maritime Transport, 2007 |url=http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/rmt2007_en.pdf |year=2007 |publisher=United Nations |location=New York and Geneva |format= PDF |isbn= }}
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| * {{cite book |last=Stopford|first=Martin|url=http://books.google.com/?id=_R-YB70kly8C&printsec=frontcover |title=Maritime economics |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=1997 |isbn=0-415-15309-3 |doi=}}
| |
| | |
| == External links ==
| |
| {{Sisterlinks|Ships|wikt=Ship|b=Ship|q=Ships|s=Ships|commons=Category:Ships|n=Ship|v=Ship}}
| |
| | |
| {{fishing vessel topics}}
| |
| {{Fisheries and fishing|state = collapsed}}
| |
| {{ModernMerchantShipTypes}}
| |
| {{Sailing Vessels and Rigs}}
| |
| {{Warship types of the 19th & 20th centuries}}
| |
| | |
| [[Category:Ships| ]]
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