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| {{About|the simple machine}}
| | Im addicted to my hobby Photography. <br>I also try to learn Portuguese in my free time.<br><br>Look at my website [http://www.marcochan.net/llg2/xmlrpc.php?longchamp=longchamp-bag-retailers.php longchamp bag retailers] |
| {{Infobox Machine
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| | name = Lever, one of the six simple machines
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| | image = Palanca-ejemplo.jpg
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| | caption = Levers can be used to exert a large force over a small distance at one end by exerting only a small force over a greater distance at the other.
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| | classification = [[Simple machine]]
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| | industry = Construction
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| | application =
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| | dimensions =
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| | weight = Mass times gravitational acceleration
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| | fuel_source =potential and kinetic energy {mechanical energy }
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| | powered =
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| | self-propelled =
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| | wheels =
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| | tracks =
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| | legs =
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| | aerofoils =
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| | axles =
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| | components =fulcrum or pivot, load and effort
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| | invented =
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| | inventor =
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| | examples =
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| }}
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| A '''lever''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|ɛ|v|ər}} or {{IPAc-en|uk|ˈ|l|iː|v|ər}}) is a [[machine]] consisting of a [[beam (structure)|beam]] or rigid rod pivoted at a fixed [[hinge]], or [[:wikt:fulcrum|fulcrum]]. It is one of the six [[simple machine]]s identified by Renaissance scientists. The word comes from the [[French language|French]] ''lever'', "to raise", ''cf.'' a ''[[wiktionary:levant|levant]].'' A lever amplifies an input force to provide a greater output force, which is said to provide '''leverage.''' The ratio of the output force to the input force is the [[ideal mechanical advantage]] of the lever.
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| ==Early use==
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| <!-- figure is used below in this article ---[[File:Archimedes lever (Small).jpg|thumb|right|An engraving from ''Mechanics Magazine'' published in London in 1824.]] --> | |
| The earliest remaining writings regarding levers date from the 3rd century BC and were provided by [[Archimedes]]. "''Give me a place to stand, and I shall move the Earth with it''"{{#tag:ref|If this feat were attempted in a uniform gravitational field with an acceleration equivalent to that of the Earth, the corresponding distance to the fulcrum which a human of mass 70 kg would be required to stand to balance a sphere of 1 Earth mass, with center of gravity 1m to the fulcrum, would be roughly equal to 8.5×10<sup>22</sup> m [http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=mass+earth+*+1m+%2F+70+kg]. This distance might be exemplified in astronomical terms as the approximate distance to the Circinus galaxy (roughly 3.6 times the distance to the Andromeda Galaxy) - about 9 million light years.|group="note"}} is a remark of Archimedes who formally stated the correct mathematical principle of levers (quoted by [[Pappus of Alexandria]]).<ref>{{cite book|last=Mackay|first=Alan Lindsay|title=A Dictionary of scientific quotations|publisher=Taylor and Francis|location=London|year=1991|page=11|chapter=Archimedes ca 287–212 BC|isbn=978-0-7503-0106-0}}</ref>
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| It is assumed<ref>{{cite book|last=Budge|first=E.A. Wallis|title=Cleopatra's Needles and Other Egyptian Obelisks|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|year=2003|page=28|isbn=978-0-7661-3524-6}}</ref> that in ancient Egypt, constructors used the lever to move and uplift obelisks weighing more than 100 tons.
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| ==Force and levers==
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| [[File:Lever Principle 3D.png|thumb|right|A lever in balance]]
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| A lever is a beam connected to ground by a hinge, or pivot, called a fulcrum. The ideal lever does not dissipate or store energy, which means there is no friction in the hinge or bending in the beam. In this case, the power into the lever equals the power out, and the ratio of output to input force is given by the ratio of the distances from the fulcrum to the points of application of these forces. This is known as the ''law of the lever.''
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| The mechanical advantage of a lever can be determined by considering the balance of [[Moment (physics)|moments]] or [[torque]], ''T'', about the fulcrum,
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| :<math>T_{1} = M_{1}a=M_{2}b =T_{2},\!</math>
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| where M<sub>1</sub> is the input force to the lever and M<sub>2</sub> is the output force. The distances ''a'' and ''b'' are the perpendicular distances between the forces and the fulcrum.
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| The mechanical advantage of the lever is the ratio of output force to input force,
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| :<math>MA = \frac{M_{2}}{M_{1}} = \frac{a}{b}.\!</math>
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| This relationship shows that the mechanical advantage can be computed from ratio of the distances from the fulcrum to where the input and output forces are applied to the lever.
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| ==Classes of levers==
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| [[File:Lever |thumb|right|Three classes of levers]]
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| Levers are classified by the relative positions of the fulcrum and the input and output forces. It is common to call the force ''the effort'' and the output force ''the load'' or ''the resistance.'' This allows the identification of three classes of levers by the relative locations of the fulcrum, the resistance and the effort:<ref >{{cite book
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| |title=Physics in Biology and Medicine, Third edition
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| |first1=Paul |last1=
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| |publisher=Academic Press
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| |year=2008
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| |=978-0-12-369411-9
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| |page=10
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| |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=e9hbt3xisb0C&pg=PA10
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| |chapter=Chapter 1
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| }}</ref>
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| *'''{{visible anchor|Class 1}}''': Fulcrum in the middle: the effort is applied on one side of the fulcrum and the resistance on the other side, for example, a [[crowbar (tool)|crowbar]] or a [[scissors|pair of scissors]].
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| *'''{{visible anchor|Class 2}}''': Resistance in the middle: the effort is applied on one side of the resistance and the fulcrum is located on the other side, for example, a [[wheelbarrow]], a [[nutcracker]], a [[bottle opener]] or the [[brake]] [[Automobile pedal|pedal]] of a car. Mechanical advantage is greater than 1.
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| *'''{{visible anchor|Class 3}}''': Effort in the middle: the resistance is on one side of the effort and the fulcrum is located on the other side, for example, a pair of [[tweezers]] or the [[human mandible]]. Mechanical advantage is less than 1.
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| These cases are described by the mnemonic "fre 123" where the fulcrum is in the middle for the 1st class lever, the resistance is in the middle for the 2nd class lever, and the effort is in the middle for the 3rd class lever.
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| ==Law of the lever==
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| The lever is a movable bar that pivots on a fulcrum attached to a fixed point. The lever operates by applying forces at different distances from the fulcrum, or a pivot.
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| Assuming the lever does not dissipate or store energy, the [[power (physics)|power]] into the lever must equal the power out of the lever. As the lever rotates around the fulcrum, points farther from this pivot move faster than points closer to the pivot. Therefore a force applied to a point farther from the pivot must be less than the force located at a point closer in, because power is the product of force and velocity.<ref>{{cite book
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| | last = Uicker
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| | first = John
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| | last2 = Pennock
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| | first2 = Gordon
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| | last3 = Shigley
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| | first3 = Joseph
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| | title = Theory of Machines and Mechanisms
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| | publisher = Oxford University Press, USA
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| | edition = 4th
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| | year = 2010
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| | isbn =978-0-19-537123-9
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| }}</ref>
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| If ''a'' and ''b'' are distances from the fulcrum to points ''A'' and ''B'' and let the force ''F<sub>A</sub>'' applied to ''A'' is the input and the force ''F<sub>B</sub>'' applied at ''B'' is the output, the ratio of the velocities of points ''A'' and ''B'' is given by ''a/b'', so we have the ratio of the output force to the input force, or mechanical advantage, is given by
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| :<math>MA = \frac{F_B}{F_A} = \frac{a}{b}.</math>
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| This is the ''law of the lever'', which was proven by [[Archimedes]] using geometric reasoning.<ref name="Usher1954">{{cite book|author=Usher, A. P.|authorlink=Abbott Payson Usher|title=A History of Mechanical Inventions|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Zt4Aw9wKjm8C&pg=PA94|page=94|accessdate=7 April 2013|year=1929|publisher=Harvard University Press (reprinted by Dover Publications 1988)|isbn=978-0-486-14359-0|oclc=514178}}</ref> It shows that if the distance ''a'' from the fulcrum to where the input force is applied (point ''A'') is greater than the distance ''b'' from fulcrum to where the output force is applied (point ''B''), then the lever amplifies the input force. On the other hand, if the distance ''a'' from the fulcrum to the input force is less than the distance ''b'' from the fulcrum to the output force, then the lever reduces the input force.
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| The use of velocity in the static analysis of a lever is an application of the principle of [[virtual work#Law of the Lever|virtual work]].
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| ==Virtual Work and the Law of the Lever ==
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| A lever is modeled as a rigid bar connected to a ground frame by a hinged joint called a fulcrum. The lever is operated by applying an input force '''F'''<sub>''A''</sub> at a point ''A'' located by the coordinate vector '''r'''<sub>''A''</sub> on the bar. The lever then exerts an output force '''F'''<sub>''B''</sub> at the point ''B'' located by '''r'''<sub>''B''</sub>. The rotation of the lever about the fulcrum ''P'' is defined by the rotation angle ''θ'' in radians.
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| [[Image:Archimedes lever (Small).jpg|thumb|right|This is an engraving from ''Mechanics Magazine'' published in London in 1824.]]
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| Let the coordinate vector of the point ''P'' that defines the fulcrum be '''r'''<sub>''P''</sub>, and introduce the lengths
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| :<math> a = |\mathbf{r}_A - \mathbf{r}_P|, \quad b = |\mathbf{r}_B - \mathbf{r}_P|, </math>
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| which are the distances from the fulcrum to the input point ''A'' and to the output point ''B'', respectively.
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| Now introduce the unit vectors '''e'''<sub>''A''</sub> and '''e'''<sub>''B''</sub> from the fulcrum to the point ''A'' and ''B'', so
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| :<math> \mathbf{r}_A - \mathbf{r}_P = a\mathbf{e}_A, \quad \mathbf{r}_B - \mathbf{r}_P = b\mathbf{e}_B.</math>
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| The velocity of the points ''A'' and ''B'' are obtained as
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| :<math> \mathbf{v}_A = \dot{\theta} a \mathbf{e}_A^\perp, \quad \mathbf{v}_B = \dot{\theta} b \mathbf{e}_B^\perp,</math>
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| where '''e'''<sub>''A''</sub><sup>⊥</sup> and '''e'''<sub>''B''</sub><sup>⊥</sup> are unit vectors perpendicular to '''e'''<sub>''A''</sub> and '''e'''<sub>''B''</sub>, respectively.
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| The angle ''θ'' is the [[generalized coordinate]] that defines the configuration of the lever, and the [[generalized force]] associated with this coordinate is given by
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| :<math> F_\theta = \mathbf{F}_A \cdot \frac{\partial\mathbf{v}_A}{\partial\dot{\theta}} - \mathbf{F}_B \cdot \frac{\partial\mathbf{v}_B}{\partial\dot{\theta}}= a(\mathbf{F}_A \cdot \mathbf{e}_A^\perp) - b(\mathbf{F}_B \cdot \mathbf{e}_B^\perp) = a F_A - b F_B ,</math>
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| where ''F''<sub>''A''</sub> and ''F''<sub>''B''</sub> are components of the forces that are perpendicular to the radial segments ''PA'' and ''PB''. The principle of [[virtual work]] states that at equilibrium the generalized force is zero, that is
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| :<math> F_\theta = a F_A - b F_B = 0. \,\!</math>
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| Thus, the ratio of the output force ''F''<sub>''B''</sub> to the input force ''F''<sub>''A''</sub> is obtained as
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| :<math> MA = \frac{F_B}{F_A} = \frac{a}{b},</math>
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| which is the [[mechanical advantage]] of the lever.
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| This equation shows that if the distance ''a'' from the fulcrum to the point ''A'' where the input force is applied is greater than the distance ''b'' from fulcrum to the point ''B'' where the output force is applied, then the lever amplifies the input force. If the opposite is true that the distance from the fulcrum to the input point ''A'' is less than from the fulcrum to the output point ''B'', then the lever reduces the magnitude of the input force.
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| This is the ''law of the lever'', which was proven by [[Archimedes]] using geometric reasoning.<ref>A. P. Usher, 1929, '''A History of Mechanical Inventions,''' Harvard University Press, (reprinted by Dover Publications 1968).</ref>
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| ==See also==
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| {{div col|3}}
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| * [[Crowbar (tool)]]
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| * [[Engineering mechanics]]
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| * [[Heavy equipment (construction)|Heavy equipment]]
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| * [[Linkage (mechanical)]]
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| * [[Mechanical advantage]]
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| * [[Mechanism (engineering)]]
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| * [[Tool]]s
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| * [[Virtual work]]
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| * [[Simple machine]]
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| {{div col end}}
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| ==Notes==
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| {{Reflist|group="note"}}
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| ==References==
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| {{Reflist}}
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| ==External links==
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| {{Commons category|Levers}}
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| {{Wiktionary}}
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| *[http://www.diracdelta.co.uk/science/source/l/e/lever/source.html Lever] at Diracdelta science and engineering encyclopedia
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| * ''[http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/ASimpleLever/ A Simple Lever]'' by [[Stephen Wolfram]], [[Wolfram Demonstrations Project]].
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| * [http://www.enchantedlearning.com/physics/machines/Levers.shtml Levers: Simple Machines] at EnchantedLearning.com
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| {{Simple machines}}
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| [[Category:Mechanisms]]
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| [[Category:Simple machines]]
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| [[ar:عتلة]]
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