Saturable absorption - Revision history

en>Trappist the monk: /* Mechanisms and examples of saturable absorption */Remove unnecessary |display-author= parameters from CS1 templates; using AWB

2015-01-03T14:28:15Z

Mechanisms and examples of saturable absorption: Remove unnecessary |display-author= parameters from CS1 templates; using AWB

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:28, 3 January 2015
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	~~{{String theory\|cTopic=Theory}}~~		The author is known by the name of Numbers Lint. My day job is a librarian. The factor she adores most is body developing and now she is trying to make money with it. Minnesota is where he's been living for many years.<br><br>Also visit my homepage - [http://xrambo.com/blog/192034 home std test]

	The ~~'''string theory landscape''' or '''anthropic landscape''' refers to the large number of possible [[false vacuum\|false vacua]] in [[string theory]].<ref name=Ashok>The most commonly quoted number~~ is of the order 10<sup>500</sup>. See M. Douglas, "The statistics of string / M theory vacua", ''JHEP'' '''0305''', 46 (2003). {{arxiv\|hep-th/0303194}}; S. Ashok and M. Douglas, "Counting flux vacua", ''JHEP'' '''0401''', 060 (2004).</ref> The "landscape" includes so many possible configurations that some physicists {{Who\|date=November 2009}} think that the known ~~laws of physics,~~ the [[standard model]] and [[general relativity]] with a positive [[cosmological constant]], occur in at least one of them. The ''anthropic landscape'' refers to the collection of those portions of the landscape that are suitable for supporting human life, an application of the [[anthropic principle]] that selects a subset of the theoretically possible configurations.

	~~In string theory the number of false vacua is commonly quoted as 10<sup>500</sup>.<ref~~ name~~=Ashok/> The large number of possibilities arises from different choices of [[Calabi-Yau manifold]]s and different values~~ of ~~generalized [[magnetic flux]]es over different [[Homology (mathematics)\|homology]] cycles~~. ~~If one assumes that there~~ is no structure in the space of vacua, the problem of finding one with a sufficiently small cosmological constant is [[NP complete]],<ref>{{cite journal\|title=Computational complexity of the landscape\|year=2006\|version=\|author1=Frederik Denef\|last2=Douglas \| first2=Michael R.\|doi=10.1016/j.aop.2006.07.013\|journal=Annals of Physics\|volume=322\|issue=5\|pages=1096–1142\|arxiv=hep-th/0602072\|bibcode = 2007AnPhy.322.1096D }}</ref> being a ~~version of the [[subset sum problem]]~~.

	~~==Anthropic principle==~~
	~~{{main\|Anthropic principle}}~~
	The idea of the string theory landscape has been used to propose a concrete implementation of the [[anthropic principle]], the idea that fundamental constants may have the values they have not for fundamental physical reasons, but rather because such values are necessary for life (and ~~hence intelligent observers to measure the constants). In 1987, [[Steven Weinberg]] proposed that the observed value of the [[cosmological constant]] was so small because it~~ is ~~not possible for life~~ to ~~occur in a universe~~ with a much larger cosmological constant.<ref>S. Weinberg, "Anthropic bound on the cosmological constant", ''Phys. Rev. Lett.'' '''59''', 2607 (1987).</ref> In order to implement this idea in a concrete physical theory, it ~~is necessary to postulate a [[multiverse]] in which fundamental physical parameters can take different values~~. ~~This has been realized in the context of [[eternal inflation]].~~

	~~==Bayesian probability==~~
	~~{{main\|Bayesian probability}}~~
	Some physicists, starting with Weinberg, have proposed that [[Bayesian probability]] can be used to compute probability distributions for fundamental physical parameters, where the probability <math>P(x)</math> of observing some fundamental parameters <math>x</math> is ~~given by,~~
	~~:<math>P(x)=P_{\mathrm{prior}}(x)\times P_{\mathrm{selection}}(x),</math>~~
	where <math>P_\mathrm{prior}</math> is the prior probability, from fundamental theory, of the parameters <math>x</math> and <math>P_\mathrm{selection}</math> is the anthropic selection function, determined by the number of "observers" that would occur in the universe with parameters <math>x</math>. These probabilistic arguments are the most controversial aspect of the landscape. Technical criticisms of these proposals have pointed out that:
	* The function <math>P_\mathrm{prior}</math> is completely unknown in string theory and may be impossible to define or interpret in any sensible probabilistic way.
	* The function <math>P_\mathrm{selection}</math> is completely unknown, since so little is known about the origin of life. Simplified criteria (such as the number of galaxies) must be used as a proxy for the number of observers. Moreover, it may never be possible to compute it for parameters radically different from those of the observable universe.
	(Interpreting probability in a context where it is only possible to draw one [[sample size\|sample]] from a [[probability distribution\|distribution]] is problematic in [[frequentist probability]] but not in Bayesian probability, which is not defined in terms of the frequency of repeated events.)

	~~Various physicists have tried to address these objections, and the ideas remain extremely controversial both within and outside the string theory community. These ideas have~~ been ~~reviewed by Carroll.<ref>S. M. Carroll, "Is our universe natural?", {{arxiv\|hep-th/0512148}}.</ref>~~

	~~==Simplified approaches==~~
	~~[[Max Tegmark\|Tegmark]] ''et al.'' have recently considered these objections and proposed a simplified anthropic scenario~~ for [[axion]] [[dark matter]] in which they argue that the first two of these problems do not apply.<ref>M. Tegmark, A. Aguirre, M. Rees and F. Wilczek, "Dimensionless constants, cosmology and other dark matters", {{arxiv\|astro-ph/0511774}}. F. Wilczek, "Enlightenment, knowledge, ignorance, temptation," {{arxiv\|hep-ph/0512187}}. See also the discussion at [http://www.math.columbia.edu/~woit/wordpress/?p=310].</ref>

	Vilenkin and collaborators have proposed a consistent way to define the probabilities for a given vacuum.<ref>See, ''e.g.'' {{cite journal\|year=2006\|title=A measure of the multiverse\|version=\|author1=Alexander Vilenkin\|doi=10.1088/1751-8113/40/25/S22\|journal=Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and Theoretical\|volume=40\|issue=25\|pages=6777–6785\|arxiv=hep-th/0609193\|bibcode = 2007JPhA...40.6777V }}</ref>

	~~A problem with~~ many of the simplified approaches people have tried is that they "predict" a cosmological constant that is too large by a factor of 10–1000 (depending on one's assumptions) and hence suggest that the cosmic acceleration should be much more rapid than is observed.<ref>{{cite journal\|title=An observational test for the anthropic origin of the cosmological constant\|author=Abraham Loeb\|year=2006\|journal=JCAP\|volume=0605\|pages=009\|url=http://www.arxiv.org/astro-ph/0604242\|format=subscription required}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|title=Anthropic prediction for Lambda and the Q catastrophe\|author=Jaume Garriga and Alexander Vilenkin\|year=2006\|volume=163\|pages=245–57\|journal=Prog. Theor.Phys. Suppl.\|url=http://www.arxiv.org/hep-th/0508005\|doi=10.1143/PTPS.163.245\|format=subscription required\|arxiv = hep-th/0508005 \|bibcode = 2006PThPS.163..245G }}</ref><~~ref~~>{{cite journal\|title=Probabilities in the Bousso-Polchinski multiverse\|author=Delia Schwartz-Perlov and Alexander Vilenkin\|year=2006\|journal=JCAP\|volume=0606\|pages=010\|url=http://www.arxiv.org/hep-th/0601162\|format=subscription required}}</ref>

	~~==Criticism==~~
	Although few dispute the idea that string theory appears to have an unimaginably large number of metastable vacua, the existence, meaning and scientific relevance of the anthropic landscape remain highly controversial. Prominent proponents of the idea include [[Andrei Linde]], [[Sir Martin Rees]] and especially [[Leonard Susskind]], who advocate it as a solution to the [[cosmological constant\|cosmological-constant]] problem. Opponents, such as [[David Gross]], suggest that the idea is inherently unscientific, unfalsifiable or premature. A famous debate on the anthropic landscape of string theory is the [[Smolin-Susskind debate]] on the merits of the landscape.

	The term "landscape" comes from [[evolutionary biology]] (see ''[[Fitness landscape]]'') and was first applied to cosmology by [[Lee Smolin]] in his book.<ref>L. Smolin, "Did the universe evolve?," ''Classical and Quantum Gravity'' '''9''', 173–191 (1992). L. Smolin, ''The Life of the Cosmos'' (Oxford, 1997)</ref> It was first used in the context of string theory by Susskind.<ref>L. Susskind, "The anthropic landscape of string theory", {{arxiv\|hep-th/0302219}}.</ref>

	There are several popular books about the anthropic principle in cosmology.<ref>L. Susskind, ''The cosmic landscape: string theory and the illusion of intelligent design'' (Little, Brown, 2005). M. J. Rees, ''Just six numbers: the deep forces that shape the universe'' (Basic Books, 2001). R. Bousso and J. Polchinski, "The string theory landscape", ''Sci. Am.'' '''291''', 60–69 (2004).</ref> Two popular physics blogs are opposed to this use of the anthropic principle.<ref>[[Lubos Motl]]'s [http://~~motls.blogspot~~.com ~~blog] criticized the anthropic principle and [[Peter Woit]]'s [http://www.math.columbia.edu/~woit~~/blog/ ~~blog] frequently attacks the anthropic string landscape.</ref>~~

	~~==References==~~
	~~{{reflist\|2}}~~

	~~==External links==~~
	* [http://xstructure.inr.ac.ru/x-bin/theme2.py?arxiv=hep-th&level=1&index1=5460697 String theory landscape on arxiv.org]
	* [http://arxiv.org/abs/1009.5386 On the computation of non-perturbative effective potentials in the string theory landscape, Mirjam Cvetič, Iñaki García-Etxebarria, James Halverson]

	~~{{DEFAULTSORT:String Theory Landscape}}~~
	~~[[Category:Physical cosmology]]~~
	~~[[Category:String theory]~~]

en>RjwilmsiBot: /* Microwave and Terahertz saturable absorption */Fix cite template param names, Volume -> volume, using AWB (9488)

2013-09-21T09:42:43Z

Microwave and Terahertz saturable absorption: Fix cite template param names, Volume -> volume, using AWB (9488)

← Older revision		Revision as of 11:42, 21 September 2013
Line 1:		Line 1:
	~~Emilia Shryock~~ is my name but ~~you~~ can ~~contact me anything you like~~. ~~South Dakota~~ is where me and ~~my spouse reside~~. ~~One~~ of the ~~extremely best issues~~ in the ~~globe~~ for me is to do ~~aerobics~~ and ~~now I~~'~~m trying~~ to ~~make cash with~~ it. ~~Hiring~~ is ~~her day job now but she~~'~~s always wanted her own company~~.<br><br>~~Here is my website~~; [http://www.~~neweracinema~~.~~com~~/~~tube~~/~~user~~/~~D69E std testing at home~~]		{{String theory\|cTopic=Theory}}

			The '''string theory landscape''' or '''anthropic landscape''' refers to the large number of possible [[false vacuum\|false vacua]] in [[string theory]].<ref name=Ashok>The most commonly quoted number is of the order 10<sup>500</sup>. See M. Douglas, "The statistics of string / M theory vacua", ''JHEP'' '''0305''', 46 (2003). {{arxiv\|hep-th/0303194}}; S. Ashok and M. Douglas, "Counting flux vacua", ''JHEP'' '''0401''', 060 (2004).</ref> The "landscape" includes so many possible configurations that some physicists {{Who\|date=November 2009}} think that the known laws of physics, the [[standard model]] and [[general relativity]] with a positive [[cosmological constant]], occur in at least one of them. The ''anthropic landscape'' refers to the collection of those portions of the landscape that are suitable for supporting human life, an application of the [[anthropic principle]] that selects a subset of the theoretically possible configurations.

			In string theory the number of false vacua is commonly quoted as 10<sup>500</sup>.<ref name=Ashok/> The large number of possibilities arises from different choices of [[Calabi-Yau manifold]]s and different values of generalized [[magnetic flux]]es over different [[Homology (mathematics)\|homology]] cycles. If one assumes that there is no structure in the space of vacua, the problem of finding one with a sufficiently small cosmological constant is [[NP complete]],<ref>{{cite journal\|title=Computational complexity of the landscape\|year=2006\|version=\|author1=Frederik Denef\|last2=Douglas \| first2=Michael R.\|doi=10.1016/j.aop.2006.07.013\|journal=Annals of Physics\|volume=322\|issue=5\|pages=1096–1142\|arxiv=hep-th/0602072\|bibcode = 2007AnPhy.322.1096D }}</ref> being a version of the [[subset sum problem]].

			==Anthropic principle==
			{{main\|Anthropic principle}}
			The idea of the string theory landscape has been used to propose a concrete implementation of the [[anthropic principle]], the idea that fundamental constants may have the values they have not for fundamental physical reasons, but rather because such values are necessary for life (and hence intelligent observers to measure the constants). In 1987, [[Steven Weinberg]] proposed that the observed value of the [[cosmological constant]] was so small because it is not possible for life to occur in a universe with a much larger cosmological constant.<ref>S. Weinberg, "Anthropic bound on the cosmological constant", ''Phys. Rev. Lett.'' '''59''', 2607 (1987).</ref> In order to implement this idea in a concrete physical theory, it is necessary to postulate a [[multiverse]] in which fundamental physical parameters can take different values. This has been realized in the context of [[eternal inflation]].

			==Bayesian probability==
			{{main\|Bayesian probability}}
			Some physicists, starting with Weinberg, have proposed that [[Bayesian probability]] can be used to compute probability distributions for fundamental physical parameters, where the probability <math>P(x)</math> of observing some fundamental parameters <math>x</math> is given by,
			:<math>P(x)=P_{\mathrm{prior}}(x)\times P_{\mathrm{selection}}(x),</math>
			where <math>P_\mathrm{prior}</math> is the prior probability, from fundamental theory, of the parameters <math>x</math> and <math>P_\mathrm{selection}</math> is the anthropic selection function, determined by the number of "observers" that would occur in the universe with parameters <math>x</math>. These probabilistic arguments are the most controversial aspect of the landscape. Technical criticisms of these proposals have pointed out that:
			* The function <math>P_\mathrm{prior}</math> is completely unknown in string theory and may be impossible to define or interpret in any sensible probabilistic way.
			* The function <math>P_\mathrm{selection}</math> is completely unknown, since so little is known about the origin of life. Simplified criteria (such as the number of galaxies) must be used as a proxy for the number of observers. Moreover, it may never be possible to compute it for parameters radically different from those of the observable universe.
			(Interpreting probability in a context where it is only possible to draw one [[sample size\|sample]] from a [[probability distribution\|distribution]] is problematic in [[frequentist probability]] but not in Bayesian probability, which is not defined in terms of the frequency of repeated events.)

			Various physicists have tried to address these objections, and the ideas remain extremely controversial both within and outside the string theory community. These ideas have been reviewed by Carroll.<ref>S. M. Carroll, "Is our universe natural?", {{arxiv\|hep-th/0512148}}.</ref>

			==Simplified approaches==
			[[Max Tegmark\|Tegmark]] ''et al.'' have recently considered these objections and proposed a simplified anthropic scenario for [[axion]] [[dark matter]] in which they argue that the first two of these problems do not apply.<ref>M. Tegmark, A. Aguirre, M. Rees and F. Wilczek, "Dimensionless constants, cosmology and other dark matters", {{arxiv\|astro-ph/0511774}}. F. Wilczek, "Enlightenment, knowledge, ignorance, temptation," {{arxiv\|hep-ph/0512187}}. See also the discussion at [http://www.math.columbia.edu/~woit/wordpress/?p=310].</ref>

			Vilenkin and collaborators have proposed a consistent way to define the probabilities for a given vacuum.<ref>See, ''e.g.'' {{cite journal\|year=2006\|title=A measure of the multiverse\|version=\|author1=Alexander Vilenkin\|doi=10.1088/1751-8113/40/25/S22\|journal=Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and Theoretical\|volume=40\|issue=25\|pages=6777–6785\|arxiv=hep-th/0609193\|bibcode = 2007JPhA...40.6777V }}</ref>

			A problem with many of the simplified approaches people have tried is that they "predict" a cosmological constant that is too large by a factor of 10–1000 (depending on one's assumptions) and hence suggest that the cosmic acceleration should be much more rapid than is observed.<ref>{{cite journal\|title=An observational test for the anthropic origin of the cosmological constant\|author=Abraham Loeb\|year=2006\|journal=JCAP\|volume=0605\|pages=009\|url=http://www.arxiv.org/astro-ph/0604242\|format=subscription required}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|title=Anthropic prediction for Lambda and the Q catastrophe\|author=Jaume Garriga and Alexander Vilenkin\|year=2006\|volume=163\|pages=245–57\|journal=Prog. Theor.Phys. Suppl.\|url=http://www.arxiv.org/hep-th/0508005\|doi=10.1143/PTPS.163.245\|format=subscription required\|arxiv = hep-th/0508005 \|bibcode = 2006PThPS.163..245G }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|title=Probabilities in the Bousso-Polchinski multiverse\|author=Delia Schwartz-Perlov and Alexander Vilenkin\|year=2006\|journal=JCAP\|volume=0606\|pages=010\|url=http://www.arxiv.org/hep-th/0601162\|format=subscription required}}</ref>

			==Criticism==
			Although few dispute the idea that string theory appears to have an unimaginably large number of metastable vacua, the existence, meaning and scientific relevance of the anthropic landscape remain highly controversial. Prominent proponents of the idea include [[Andrei Linde]], [[Sir Martin Rees]] and especially [[Leonard Susskind]], who advocate it as a solution to the [[cosmological constant\|cosmological-constant]] problem. Opponents, such as [[David Gross]], suggest that the idea is inherently unscientific, unfalsifiable or premature. A famous debate on the anthropic landscape of string theory is the [[Smolin-Susskind debate]] on the merits of the landscape.

			The term "landscape" comes from [[evolutionary biology]] (see ''[[Fitness landscape]]'') and was first applied to cosmology by [[Lee Smolin]] in his book.<ref>L. Smolin, "Did the universe evolve?," ''Classical and Quantum Gravity'' '''9''', 173–191 (1992). L. Smolin, ''The Life of the Cosmos'' (Oxford, 1997)</ref> It was first used in the context of string theory by Susskind.<ref>L. Susskind, "The anthropic landscape of string theory", {{arxiv\|hep-th/0302219}}.</ref>

			There are several popular books about the anthropic principle in cosmology.<ref>L. Susskind, ''The cosmic landscape: string theory and the illusion of intelligent design'' (Little, Brown, 2005). M. J. Rees, ''Just six numbers: the deep forces that shape the universe'' (Basic Books, 2001). R. Bousso and J. Polchinski, "The string theory landscape", ''Sci. Am.'' '''291''', 60–69 (2004).</ref> Two popular physics blogs are opposed to this use of the anthropic principle.<ref>[[Lubos Motl]]'s [http://motls.blogspot.com blog] criticized the anthropic principle and [[Peter Woit]]'s [http://www.math.columbia.edu/~woit/blog/ blog] frequently attacks the anthropic string landscape.</ref>

			==References==
			{{reflist\|2}}

			==External links==
			* [http://xstructure.inr.ac.ru/x-bin/theme2.py?arxiv=hep-th&level=1&index1=5460697 String theory landscape on arxiv.org]
			* [http://arxiv.org/abs/1009.5386 On the computation of non-perturbative effective potentials in the string theory landscape, Mirjam Cvetič, Iñaki García-Etxebarria, James Halverson]

			{{DEFAULTSORT:String Theory Landscape}}
			[[Category:Physical cosmology]]
			[[Category:String theory]]

en>Bibcode Bot: Adding 2 arxiv eprint(s), 0 bibcode(s) and 0 doi(s). Did it miss something? Report bugs, errors, and suggestions at User talk:Bibcode Bot

2012-07-31T14:48:57Z

Adding 2 arxiv eprint(s), 0 bibcode(s) and 0 doi(s). Did it miss something? Report bugs, errors, and suggestions at User talk:Bibcode Bot

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Emilia Shryock is my name but you can contact me anything you like. South Dakota is where me and my spouse reside. One of the extremely best issues in the globe for me is to do aerobics and now I'm trying to make cash with it. Hiring is her day job now but she's always wanted her own company.<br><br>Here is my website; [http://www.neweracinema.com/tube/user/D69E std testing at home]