Ackermann function

Template:Bots In computability theory, the Ackermann function, named after Wilhelm Ackermann, is one of the simplest and earliest-discovered examples of a total computable function that is not primitive recursive. All primitive recursive functions are total and computable, but the Ackermann function illustrates that not all total computable functions are primitive recursive.

After Ackermann's publication of his function (which had three nonnegative integer arguments), many authors modified it to suit various purposes, so that today "the Ackermann function" may refer to any of numerous variants of the original function. One common version, the two-argument Ackermann–Péter function, is defined as follows for nonnegative integers m and n:

$A(m,n)={\begin{cases}n+1&{\mbox{if }}m=0\\A(m-1,1)&{\mbox{if }}m>0{\mbox{ and }}n=0\\A(m-1,A(m,n-1))&{\mbox{if }}m>0{\mbox{ and }}n>0.\end{cases}}$

Its value grows rapidly, even for small inputs. For example A(4,2) is an integer of 19,729 decimal digits.

History

In the late 1920s, the mathematicians Gabriel Sudan and Wilhelm Ackermann, students of David Hilbert, were studying the foundations of computation. Both Sudan and Ackermann are credited with discovering total computable functions (termed simply "recursive" in some references) that are not primitive recursive. Sudan published the lesser-known Sudan function, then shortly afterwards and independently, in 1928, Ackermann published his function $\varphi \,\!$. Ackermann's three-argument function, $\varphi (m,n,p)\,\!$, is defined such that for p = 0, 1, 2, it reproduces the basic operations of addition, multiplication, and exponentiation as

$\varphi (m,n,0)=m+n,\,\!$

$\varphi (m,n,1)=m\cdot n,\,\!$

$\varphi (m,n,2)=m^{n},\,\!$

and for p > 2 it extends these basic operations in a way that happens to be expressible in Knuth's up-arrow notation as

$\varphi (m,n,p)=m\uparrow ^{p-1}n.\,\!$

(Aside from its historic role as a total-computable-but-not-primitive-recursive function, Ackermann's original function is seen to extend the basic arithmetic operations beyond exponentiation, although not as seamlessly as do variants of Ackermann's function that are specifically designed for that purpose — such as Goodstein's hyperoperation sequence.)

In On the Infinite, David Hilbert hypothesized that the Ackermann function was not primitive recursive, but it was Ackermann, Hilbert’s personal secretary and former student, who actually proved the hypothesis in his paper On Hilbert’s Construction of the Real Numbers. On the Infinite was Hilbert’s most important paper on the foundations of mathematics, serving as the heart of Hilbert's program to secure the foundation of transfinite numbers by basing them on finite methods.

Rózsa Péter and Raphael Robinson later developed a two-variable version of the Ackermann function that became preferred by many authors.

Definition and properties

Ackermann's original three-argument function $\varphi (m,n,p)\,\!$ is defined recursively as follows for nonnegative integers m, n, and p:

$\varphi (m,n,p)={\begin{cases}\varphi (m,n,0)=m+n\\\varphi (m,0,1)=0\\\varphi (m,0,2)=1\\\varphi (m,0,p)=m&{\text{ for }}p>2\\\varphi (m,n,p)=\varphi (m,\varphi (m,n-1,p),p-1)&{\text{ for }}n>0{\text{ and }}p>0.\end{cases}}\,\!$

Of the various two-argument versions, the one developed by Péter and Robinson (called "the" Ackermann function by some authors) is defined for nonnegative integers m and n as follows:

$A(m,n)={\begin{cases}n+1&{\mbox{if }}m=0\\A(m-1,1)&{\mbox{if }}m>0{\mbox{ and }}n=0\\A(m-1,A(m,n-1))&{\mbox{if }}m>0{\mbox{ and }}n>0.\end{cases}}$

It may not be immediately obvious that the evaluation of $A(m,n)$ always terminates. However, the recursion is bounded because in each recursive application either m decreases, or m remains the same and n decreases. Each time that n reaches zero, m decreases, so m eventually reaches zero as well. (Expressed more technically, in each case the pair (m, n) decreases in the lexicographic order on pairs, which is a well-ordering, just like the ordering of single non-negative integers; this means one cannot go down in the ordering infinitely many times in succession.) However, when m decreases there is no upper bound on how much n can increase — and it will often increase greatly.

The Péter-Ackermann function can also be expressed in terms of various other versions of the Ackermann function:

• the indexed version of Knuth's up-arrow notation (extended to integer indices ≥ -2):

A(m, n) = $2\uparrow ^{m-2}(n+3)-3.$

The part of the definition A(m, 0) = A(m-1, 1) corresponds to $2\uparrow ^{m+1}3=2\uparrow ^{m}4.$

• hyper operators:

A(m, n) = hyper(2, m, n + 3) − 3.

• Conway chained arrow notation:

A(m, n) = (2 → (n+3) → (m − 2)) − 3 for m > 2

hence

2 → n → m = A(m+2,n-3) + 3 for n>2.

(n=1 and n=2 would correspond with A(m,−2) = −1 and A(m,−1) = 1, which could logically be added.)

For small values of m like 1, 2, or 3, the Ackermann function grows relatively slowly with respect to n (at most exponentially). For m ≥ 4, however, it grows much more quickly; even A(4, 2) is about 2Template:E, and the decimal expansion of A(4, 3) is very large by any typical measure.

Logician Harvey Friedman defines a version of the Ackermann function as follows:

• For n = 0: A(m, n) = 1

• For m = 1: A(m, n) = 2n
• Else: A(m, n) = A(m - 1, A(m, n - 1))

He also defines a single-argument version A(n) = A(n, n).

A single-argument version A(k) = A(k, k) that increases both m and n at the same time dwarfs every primitive recursive function, including very fast-growing functions such as the exponential function, the factorial function, multi- and superfactorial functions, and even functions defined using Knuth's up-arrow notation (except when the indexed up-arrow is used). It can be seen that A(n) is roughly comparable to f_ω(n) in the fast-growing hierarchy.

This extreme growth can be exploited to show that f, which is obviously computable on a machine with infinite memory such as a Turing machine and so is a computable function, grows faster than any primitive recursive function and is therefore not primitive recursive. In a category with exponentials, using the isomorphism $A\times B\rightarrow C\cong A\rightarrow (B\rightarrow C)$ (in computer science, this is called currying), the Ackermann function may be defined via primitive recursion over higher-order functionals as follows:

${\begin{array}{lcl}\operatorname {Ack} (0)&=&\operatorname {Succ} \\\operatorname {Ack} (m+1)&=&\operatorname {Iter} (\operatorname {Ack} (m))\end{array}}$

where Succ is the usual successor function and Iter is defined by primitive recursion as well:

${\begin{array}{lcl}\operatorname {Iter} (f)(0)&=&f(1)\\\operatorname {Iter} (f)(n+1)&=&f(\operatorname {Iter} (f)(n)).\end{array}}$

One interesting aspect of the Ackermann function is that the only arithmetic operations it ever uses are addition and subtraction of 1. Its properties come solely from the power of unlimited recursion. This also implies that its running time is at least proportional to its output, and so is also extremely huge. In actuality, for most cases the running time is far larger than the output; see below.

Table of values

Computing the Ackermann function can be restated in terms of an infinite table. We place the natural numbers along the top row. To determine a number in the table, take the number immediately to the left, then look up the required number in the previous row, at the position given by the number just taken. If there is no number to its left, simply look at the column headed "1" in the previous row. Here is a small upper-left portion of the table:

Values of A(m, n)

m\n	0	1	2	3	4	n
0	1	2	3	4	5	$n+1$
1	2	3	4	5	6	$n+2=2+(n+3)-3$
2	3	5	7	9	11	$2n+3=2\cdot (n+3)-3$
3	5	13	29	61	125	$2^{(n+3)}-3$
4	13 =${2^{2^{2}}}-3$	65533 =${2^{2^{2^{2}}}}-3$	265536 − 3 =${2^{2^{2^{2^{2}}}}}-3$	${2^{2^{65536}}}-3$ =${2^{2^{2^{2^{2^{2}}}}}}-3$	${2^{2^{2^{65536}}}}-3$ =${2^{2^{2^{2^{2^{2^{2}}}}}}}-3$	${\begin{matrix}\underbrace {{2^{2}}^{{\cdot }^{{\cdot }^{{\cdot }^{2}}}}} -3\\n{\mbox{ + 3}}\end{matrix}}$

The numbers listed here in a recursive reference are very large and cannot be easily notated in some other form.

Despite the large values occurring in this early section of the table, some even larger numbers have been defined, such as Graham's number, which cannot be written with any small number of Knuth arrows. This number is constructed with a technique similar to applying the Ackermann function to itself recursively.

This is a repeat of the above table, but with the values replaced by the relevant expression from the function definition to show the pattern clearly:

Values of A(m, n)

m\n	0	1	2	3	4	n
0	0+1	1+1	2+1	3+1	4+1	$n+1$
1	A(0,1)	A(0,A(1,0))	A(0,A(1,1))	A(0,A(1,2))	A(0,A(1,3))	$n+2=2+(n+3)-3$
2	A(1,1)	A(1,A(2,0))	A(1,A(2,1))	A(1,A(2,2))	A(1,A(2,3))	$2n+3=2\cdot (n+3)-3$
3	A(2,1)	A(2,A(3,0))	A(2,A(3,1))	A(2,A(3,2))	A(2,A(3,3))	$2^{(n+3)}-3$
4	A(3,1)	A(3,A(4,0))	A(3,A(4,1))	A(3,A(4,2))	A(3,A(4,3))	${\begin{matrix}\underbrace {{2^{2}}^{{\cdot }^{{\cdot }^{{\cdot }^{2}}}}} -3\\n{\mbox{ + 3}}\end{matrix}}$
5	A(4,1)	A(4,A(5,0))	A(4,A(5,1))	A(4,A(5,2))	A(4,A(5,3))	A(4, A(5, n-1))
6	A(5,1)	A(5,A(6,0))	A(5,A(6,1))	A(5,A(6,2))	A(5,A(6,3))	A(5, A(6, n-1))

Expansion

To see how the Ackermann function grows so quickly, it helps to expand out some simple expressions using the rules in the original definition. For example, we can fully evaluate $A(1,2)$ in the following way:

${\begin{aligned}A(1,2)&=A(0,A(1,1))\\&=A(0,A(0,A(1,0)))\\&=A(0,A(0,A(0,1)))\\&=A(0,A(0,2))\\&=A(0,3)\\&=4.\end{aligned}}$

To demonstrate how $A(4,3)$'s computation results in many steps and in a large number:

${\begin{aligned}A(4,3)&=A(3,A(4,2))\\&=A(3,A(3,A(4,1)))\\&=A(3,A(3,A(3,A(4,0))))\\&=A(3,A(3,A(3,A(3,1))))\\&=A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(3,0)))))\\&=A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(2,1)))))\\&=A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(1,A(2,0))))))\\&=A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(1,A(1,1))))))\\&=A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(1,A(0,A(1,0)))))))\\&=A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(1,A(0,A(0,1)))))))\\&=A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(1,A(0,2))))))\\&=A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(1,3)))))\\&=A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(0,A(1,2))))))\\&=A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(0,A(0,A(1,1)))))))\\&=A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(0,A(0,A(0,A(1,0))))))))\\&=A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(0,A(0,A(0,A(0,1))))))))\\&=A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(0,A(0,A(0,2)))))))\\&=A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(0,A(0,3))))))\\&=A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(0,4)))))\\&=A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,5))))\\&=\ldots \\&=A(3,A(3,A(3,13)))\\&=\ldots \\&=A(3,A(3,65533))\\&=\ldots \\&=A(3,2^{65536}-3)\\&=\ldots \\&=2^{2^{\overset {65536}{}}}-3.\\\end{aligned}}$

Written as a power of 10, this is roughly equivalent to 10^{6.031Template:E}.

Inverse

Since the function  f (n) = A(n, n) considered above grows very rapidly, its inverse function, f⁻¹, grows very slowly. This inverse Ackermann function f⁻¹ is usually denoted by α. In fact, α(n) is less than 5 for any practical input size n, since A(4, 4) is on the order of $2^{2^{10^{19729}}}$.

This inverse appears in the time complexity of some algorithms, such as the disjoint-set data structure and Chazelle's algorithm for minimum spanning trees. Sometimes Ackermann's original function or other variations are used in these settings, but they all grow at similarly high rates. In particular, some modified functions simplify the expression by eliminating the −3 and similar terms.

A two-parameter variation of the inverse Ackermann function can be defined as follows, where $\lfloor x\rfloor$ is the floor function:

$\alpha (m,n)=\min\{i\geq 1:A(i,\lfloor m/n\rfloor )\geq \log _{2}n\}.$

This function arises in more precise analyses of the algorithms mentioned above, and gives a more refined time bound. In the disjoint-set data structure, m represents the number of operations while n represents the number of elements; in the minimum spanning tree algorithm, m represents the number of edges while n represents the number of vertices. Several slightly different definitions of α(m, n) exist; for example, log₂ n is sometimes replaced by n, and the floor function is sometimes replaced by a ceiling.

Other studies might define an inverse function of one where m is set to a constant, such that the inverse applies to a particular row.

Use as benchmark

The Ackermann function, due to its definition in terms of extremely deep recursion, can be used as a benchmark of a compiler's ability to optimize recursion. The first use of Ackermann's function in this way was by Yngve Sundblad, The Ackermann function. A Theoretical, computational and formula manipulative study. (BIT 11 (1971), 107119).

This seminal paper was taken up by Brian Wichmann (co-author of the Whetstone benchmark) in a trilogy of papers written between 1975 and 1982.

Ackermann numbers

In The Book of Numbers, John Horton Conway and Richard K. Guy define the sequence of Ackermann numbers to be 1↑1, 2↑↑2, 3↑↑↑3, etc.; that is, the n-th Ackermann number is defined to be n↑ⁿn (n = 1, 2, 3, ...), where m↑^kn is Knuth's up-arrow version of the Ackermann function.

The first few Ackermann numbers are:

• 1↑1 = 1¹ = 1,
• 2↑↑2 = 2↑2 = 2² = 4,
• 3↑↑↑3 = 3↑↑3↑↑3 = 3↑↑(3↑3↑3) = $3\uparrow \uparrow 3^{3^{3}}=3\uparrow \uparrow 7625597484987=\underbrace {3^{3^{3^{3^{.^{.^{.^{3}}}}}}}} _{7625597484987{\rm {\ threes}}}$

The fourth Ackermann number, 4↑↑↑↑4, can be written in terms of tetration towers as follows:

4↑↑↑↑4 = 4↑↑↑4↑↑↑4↑↑↑4 = 4↑↑↑4↑↑↑(4↑↑4↑↑4↑↑4)

$=\underbrace {~~^{^{^{^{^{^{^{^{4}.}.}.}4}4}4}4}4~~} _{\underbrace {~^{^{^{^{^{4}.}.}.}4}4~} _{^{^{^{4}4}4}4{\rm {\ fours}}}{\rm {fours}}}$

Explanation: in the middle layer, there is a tower of tetration whose full height is $^{^{^{4}4}4}4$ and the final result is the top layer of tetrated 4s whose full height equals the calculation of the middle layer. Note that by way of size comparison, the simple expression ⁴4 already exceeds a googolplex, so the fourth Ackermann number is quite large.

Alternatively, this can be written in terms of exponentiation towers as

$4\uparrow \uparrow \uparrow \uparrow 4=$

$\quad$

$\left.{\begin{matrix}4^{4^{\cdot ^{\cdot ^{\cdot ^{\cdot ^{4}}}}}}\end{matrix}}\right\}\left.{\begin{matrix}4^{4^{\cdot ^{\cdot ^{\cdot ^{4}}}}}\end{matrix}}\right\}\dots \left.{\begin{matrix}4^{4^{4^{4}}}\end{matrix}}\right\}4,$

where the number of towers on the previous line (including the rightmost "4") is

$\left.{\begin{matrix}4^{4^{\cdot ^{\cdot ^{\cdot ^{\cdot ^{4}}}}}}\end{matrix}}\right\}\left.{\begin{matrix}4^{4^{\cdot ^{\cdot ^{\cdot ^{4}}}}}\end{matrix}}\right\}\dots \left.{\begin{matrix}4^{4^{4^{4}}}\end{matrix}}\right\}4,$

where the number of towers on the previous line (including the rightmost "4") is

$\left.{\begin{matrix}4^{4^{\cdot ^{\cdot ^{\cdot ^{4}}}}}\end{matrix}}\right\}\left.{\begin{matrix}4^{4^{\cdot ^{\cdot ^{\cdot ^{4}}}}}\end{matrix}}\right\}\left.{\begin{matrix}4^{4^{4^{4}}}\end{matrix}}\right\}4,$

where the number of "4"s in each tower, on each of the lines above, is specified by the value of the next tower to its right (as indicated by a brace).

See also

• Computability theory
• Double recursion
• Fast-growing hierarchy
• Primitive recursive function
• Recursion (computer science)

References

43 year old Petroleum Engineer Harry from Deep River, usually spends time with hobbies and interests like renting movies, property developers in singapore new condominium and vehicle racing. Constantly enjoys going to destinations like Camino Real de Tierra Adentro.

External links

• Other Sports Official Kull from Drumheller, has hobbies such as telescopes, property developers in singapore and crocheting. Identified some interesting places having spent 4 months at Saloum Delta.
  
  my web-site http://himerka.com/
• 22 year-old Systems Analyst Rave from Merrickville-Wolford, has lots of hobbies and interests including quick cars, property developers in singapore and baking. Always loves visiting spots like Historic Monuments Zone of Querétaro.
  
  Here is my web site - cottagehillchurch.com
• Singapore has elevated a tax on international property buyers as part of new momentary measures to chill its residential housing market which has seen continued strong demand despite earlier efforts to curb costs.
  
  The Institute of Property Brokers (IEA) has revealed really helpful commissions/fees for real estate transactions. With the steam of an overheated property market dying down, the excitement has now shifted to developers enjoying discount games to push new initiatives or clear previous stock. With so many ‘great offers', patrons are spoiled for choices. LONDON London mayor Boris Johnson mentioned excessive property costs are "the appropriate drawback to have" and that technology startups are interested in the town regardless of its "creaking" infrastructure. More detail SEOUL A prolonged property market stoop and low rates of interest are threatening the way forward for a uniquely South Korean residence lease system that traces its roots back to the 19th century. More detail Typical Sequence of a Venture Preview
  
  Since 2009 until August 2013, there was eight property cooling measures and 1 automotive mortgage regulation. Here's a abstract of the measures and it's impact until date. Checklist of Property cooling measures by URA/MAS. b. Foreigners and non-individuals (corporate entities) shopping for any residential property pays an ABSD of 10%; c. Everlasting Residents (PRs) proudly owning one and buying the second and subsequent residential property will pay an ABSD of three%; and Anyway, the challenge won't be accomplished till 2019. Who knows what the property market will probably be like five years from now? Amongst others, new rules search to curb non-public property house owners from investing and cashing in on HDB resale flats All residential property loans will now only enable a maximum loan tenor of 35 years.
  
  which runs alongside Holland Road and boasts essentially the most exclusive and costly properties in Singapore, such nearly as good class bungalows and high-finish condos and flats; and Here at New Zealand Property Solutions we purpose to search out the most suitable property investments in New Zealand for our abroad clients based in Singapore, Malaysia and lots of other developed nations. Many Singaporean and worldwide traders may not have the local market understanding to maximise the complete potential of capital gains and constructive cash flow that comes from New Zealand property funding. New Zealand Property Solutions gives the required information to ensure a sound funding, as well the difficult process of discovering the professional contacts required. condo prices in singapore Amenities
  
  One Balmoral – Extremely High End Freehold Condominium To Match Your Status! One Balmoral is a ultra high finish freehold condominium located at One Balmoral Highway. One Balmoral A growth by Hong Leong Holdings Restricted, consisting of 91 units in Oceanfront Suites, irresistible pricing for a 946 leasehold property with magnificent sea view. Dreaming of basking and feeling the warmth of pure sunlight is now only a click away. Oceanfront Suites - Seaside residing now not wants to remain an unattainable The Meyerise is essentially the most prestigious freehold Condominium in Meyer Highway District 15! Click on here to register your interest for The Meyerise now! At The Meyerise, every factor is uniquely made to go with the opposite, from the outstanding architecture to
  
  Resolve Whether To Rent Or Buy Shopping for a house isn't only an investment, however a permanent tie to a location. More importantly, it may restrict job alternatives by making you location dependent. In the event you're unsure about whether or not you may be in the same metropolis in 5-8 years, it's best to hire. Watch In Sweden, one needs to get a license from the government so as to paint his own home. In New Zealand, it's unlawful if a cat leaves the home with out having three bells around its neck. Borgnine owned the home for nearly 60 years earlier than he died on the age of ninety five. It hit the real estate market Sept. 2012 for $3.395 million, a couple of months after Borgnine handed away. Posted by Edison Foo December 13, 2013 Open for booking NOW !!! Posted by Edison Foo October 22, 2013
  
  Earlier than you decide to buy a House or Flat it's best to ensure that you have sufficientfunds obtainable to complete the acquisition. If you are financing your buy withyour CPF funds and/or a Mortgage you must contact the CPF Board and the Lender financial institution/financecompany upfront to signal all relevant application kinds and furnish all relevantinformation and paperwork to ensure that the CPF funds and/or Loan would be approvedand the funds will probably be obtainable. Along with the acquisition value you'll haveto make provision for the stamp fees and Lawyer's charges. Residential Property Act.
  
  Do contact us if you want an opinion. We've good contacts and networks with local and foreign banks in Singapore. And we are in a position to provide you data and market talk from the bottom up. Singaporeans have traditionally been averse to wealth redistribution, partly due to the idea that focussing on equalising life opportunities is sufficient. When property taxes have been abolished in 2008, Singapore turned one of the few international locations that does not have capital gains (including property) or estate taxes. Some fear that property duties may result in capital flight. But rich individuals choose Singapore for many reasons, including business convenience and household security. Belgravia Villas Cluster Home @ Ang Mo Kio Open for Sale 19September Types of Residential Property
• An animated Ackermann function calculator
• Scott Aaronson, Who can name the biggest number? (1999)
• Ackermann function's. Includes a table of some values.
• Hyper-operations: Ackermann's Function and New Arithmetical Operation
• Robert Munafo's Large Numbers describes several variations on the definition of A.
• Gabriel Nivasch, Inverse Ackermann without pain on the inverse Ackermann function.
• Raimund Seidel, Understanding the inverse Ackermann function (PDF presentation).
• The Ackermann function written in different programming languages, (on Rosetta Code)
• Ackermann's Function (Archived 2009-10-24) — Some study and programming by Harry J. Smith.

Real Estate Agent Renaldo Lester from Saint-Jean-Chrysostome, has several hobbies which include leathercrafting, property developers in singapore apartment for sale, this contact form, and crochet. Loves to see new cities and places like Ruins of Loropéni. Real Estate Agent Renaldo Lester from Saint-Jean-Chrysostome, has several hobbies which include leathercrafting, property developers in singapore apartment for sale, this contact form, and crochet. Loves to see new cities and places like Ruins of Loropéni.