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[[Image:Response surface metodology.jpg|thumb|Design of experiments with full factorial design (left), response surface with second-degree polynomial (right)]]
 
In general usage,  '''design of experiments (DOE)''' or '''experimental design''' is the design of any information-gathering exercises where variation is present, whether under the full control of the experimenter or not. However, in [[statistics]], these terms are usually used for [[controlled experiment]]s.  Formal planned experimentation  is often used in evaluating [[physical test|physical objects]], [[chemical test|chemical formulations]], structures, components, and materials.  Other types of study, and their design, are discussed in the articles on [[computer experiment]]s, [[opinion poll]]s and [[statistical survey]]s (which are types of [[observational study]]), [[natural experiment]]s and [[quasi-experiment]]s (for example, [[quasi-experimental design]]). See [[Experiment]] for the distinction between these types of experiments or studies.
 
In the design of experiments, the experimenter is often interested in the effect of some process or intervention (the "treatment") on some objects (the "[[experimental unit]]s"), which may be people, parts of people, groups of people, plants, animals, etc. Design of experiments is thus a discipline that has very broad application across all the natural and social sciences and engineering.
 
==History of development==
 
===Controlled experimentation on scurvy===
In 1747, while serving as surgeon on [[HMS Salisbury (1746)|HMS ''Salisbury'']], [[James Lind (physician)|James Lind]] carried out a controlled experiment to develop a cure for [[scurvy]].<ref name="ADC1997">{{Cite journal| last =Dunn | first =Peter | coauthors = | title =James Lind (1716-94) of Edinburgh and the treatment of scurvy  | journal =Archive of Disease in Childhood Foetal Neonatal | volume =76 | issue = 1| pages =64–65 | publisher =British Medical Journal Publishing Group | location =United Kingdom |date = January 1997| url =http://fn.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/76/1/F64 | doi = 10.1136/fn.76.1.F64| pmc =1720613 | accessdate =2009-01-17 | pmid=9059193}}</ref>
 
Lind selected 12 men from the ship, all suffering from scurvy. Lind limited his subjects to men who "were as similar as I could have them", that is he provided strict entry requirements to reduce extraneous variation. He divided them into six pairs, giving each pair  different supplements to their basic diet for two weeks. The treatments were all remedies that had been proposed:
*  A quart of cider every day
*  Twenty five gutts (drops) of ''elixir [[vitriol]]'' (sulphuric acid) three times a day upon an empty stomach
*  One half-pint of seawater every day
*  A mixture of garlic, mustard, and horseradish in a lump the size of a nutmeg
*  Two spoonfuls of vinegar three times a day
*  Two oranges and one lemon every day
 
The men given [[citrus fruit]]s recovered dramatically within a week. One of them returned to duty after six days, and the others cared for the rest. The other subjects experienced some improvement, but nothing compared to the subjects who ate the citrus fruits, which proved substantially superior to the other treatments.
 
===Statistical experiments, following Charles S. Peirce===
{{Main|Frequentist statistics}}
{{See also|Randomization}}
A theory of statistical inference was developed by [[Charles Sanders Peirce|Charles S. Peirce]] in "[[Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography#illus|Illustrations of the Logic of Science]]" (1877–1878) and "[[Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography#SIL|A Theory of Probable Inference]]" (1883), two publications that emphasized the importance of randomization-based inference in statistics.
 
====Randomized experiments====
{{Main|Random assignment}}
{{See also|Repeated measures design}}
Charles S. Peirce randomly assigned volunteers to a [[blinding (medicine)|blinded]], [[repeated measures design|repeated-measures design]] to evaluate their ability to discriminate weights.<ref name="smalldiff">{{Cite journal| last1= Peirce|first1=Charles Sanders|last2=Jastrow|first2=Joseph |authorlink1=Charles Sanders Peirce|authorlink2=Joseph Jastrow|year=1885|title=On Small Differences in Sensation|url=http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Peirce/small-diffs.htm| journal=Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=3|pages=73–83}}</ref><ref name="telepathy">
{{Cite journal|first=Ian |last=Hacking|  authorlink=Ian Hacking | title=Telepathy: Origins of Randomization in Experimental Design|journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]|issue=3|volume=79|date=September 1988 |pages=427–451|jstor=234674|mr=1013489 | doi=10.1086/354775}}</ref><ref name="stigler">
{{Cite journal|author=[[Stephen M. Stigler]]|title=A Historical View of Statistical Concepts in Psychology and Educational Research| journal=American Journal of Education| volume=101|issue=1|date=November 1992|pages=60–70|jstor=1085417|doi=10.1086/444032
}}</ref><ref name="dehue">
{{Cite journal|author=Trudy Dehue|title=Deception, Efficiency, and Random Groups: Psychology and the Gradual Origination of the Random Group Design|journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]|volume=88|issue=4|date=December 1997|pages=653–673|doi=10.1086/383850|pmid=9519574}}</ref>
Peirce's experiment inspired other researchers in psychology and education, which developed a research tradition of randomized experiments in laboratories and specialized textbooks in the 1800s.<ref name="smalldiff"/><ref name="telepathy"/><ref name="stigler"/><ref name="dehue"/>
 
====Optimal designs for regression models====
{{Main|Response surface methodology}}
{{See also|Optimal design}}
[[Charles Sanders Peirce|Charles S. Peirce]] also contributed the first English-language publication on an [[optimal design]] for [[Regression analysis|regression]] [[statistical model|models]] in 1876.<ref>{{cite journal| author=[[Charles Sanders Peirce|Peirce, C. S.]] | year=1876| title=Note on the Theory of the Economy of Research | journal=Coast Survey Report | pages=197–201}}, actually published 1879, NOAA [http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/cgs/001_pdf/CSC-0025.PDF#page=222 PDF Eprint].<br /> Reprinted in ''[[Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography#CP|Collected Papers]]'' '''7''', paragraphs 139–157, also in ''[[Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography#W|Writings]]'' '''4''', pp. 72–78, and in {{cite journal| author=[[Charles Sanders Peirce|Peirce, C.&nbsp;S.]] | year=1967
| title=Note on the Theory of the Economy of Research
| journal=Operations Research
|volume=15 | issue=4 |month=July–August|pages=643–648
| jstor=168276|doi=10.1287/opre.15.4.643
}}</ref> A pioneering [[optimal design]] for [[polynomial regression]] was suggested by [[Joseph Diaz Gergonne|Gergonne]] in 1815. In 1918 Kirstine Smith published optimal designs for polynomials of degree six (and less).
 
===Sequences of experiments===
{{Main|Sequential analysis}}
{{See also|Multi-armed bandit problem|Gittins index|Optimal design}}
The use of a sequence of experiments, where the design of each may depend on the results of previous experiments, including the possible decision to stop experimenting, is within the scope of [[Sequential analysis]], a field that was pioneered<ref>Johnson, N.L. (1961). "Sequential analysis: a survey." ''[[Journal of the Royal Statistical Society]]'', Series A. Vol. 124 (3), 372&ndash;411. (pages 375&ndash;376)</ref> by [[Abraham Wald]] in the context of sequential tests of statistical hypotheses.<ref>Wald, A. (1945) "Sequential Tests of Statistical Hypotheses", [[Annals of Mathematical Statistics]], 16 (2), 117&ndash;186.</ref> [[Herman Chernoff]] wrote an overview of optimal sequential designs,<ref name="ref3"/> while [[Minimisation (clinical trials)|adaptive designs]] have been surveyed by S. Zacks.<ref>Zacks, S. (1996) "Adaptive Designs for Parametric Models". In: Ghosh, S. and Rao, C. R., (Eds) (1996). "Design and Analysis of Experiments," ''Handbook of Statistics'', Volume 13. North-Holland. ISBN 0-444-82061-2.  (pages 151&ndash;180)</ref> One specific type of sequential design is the "two-armed bandit", generalized to the [[multi-armed bandit]], on which early work was done by [[Herbert Robbins]] in 1952.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1090/S0002-9904-1952-09620-8 | last1 = Robbins | first1 = H. | year = 1952 | title = Some Aspects of the Sequential Design of Experiments | url = | journal = Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society | volume = 58 | issue = 5| pages = 527–535 }}</ref>
 
==Principles of experimental design, following Ronald A. Fisher==
A methodology for designing experiments was proposed by [[Ronald Fisher|Ronald A. Fisher]], in his innovative books: "The Arrangement of Field Experiments" (1926) and ''[[The Design of Experiments]]'' (1935).  Much of his pioneering work dealt with agricultural applications of statistical methods.  As a mundane example, he described how to test the [[hypothesis]] that a certain lady could distinguish by flavour alone whether the milk or the tea was first placed in the cup. These methods have been broadly adapted in the physical and social sciences, and are still used in [[agricultural engineering]].  The concepts presented here differ from the design and analysis of [[computer experiment]]s.
 
;Comparison
:In some fields of study it is not possible to have independent measurements to a traceable [[Standard (metrology)|standard]].  Comparisons between treatments are much more valuable and are usually preferable. Often one compares against a [[scientific control]] or traditional treatment that acts as baseline.
 
;[[Randomization]]
:Random assignment is the process of assigning individuals at random to groups or to different groups in an experiment. The random assignment of individuals to groups (or conditions within a group) distinguishes a rigorous, "true" experiment from an adequate, but less-than-rigorous, "quasi-experiment".<ref>Creswell, J.W. (2008). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (3rd). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. 2008, p. 300. ISBN 0-13-613550-1</ref> There is an extensive body of mathematical theory that explores the consequences of making the allocation of units to treatments by means of some random mechanism such as tables of random numbers, or the use of randomization devices such as playing cards or dice. Provided the sample size is adequate, the risks associated with random allocation (such as failing to obtain a representative sample in a survey, or having a serious imbalance in a key characteristic between a treatment group and a control group) are calculable and hence can be managed down to an acceptable level. Random does ''not'' mean haphazard, and great care must be taken that appropriate random methods are used.
 
;[[Replication (statistics)|Replication]]
:Measurements are usually subject to variation and [[Measurement uncertainty|uncertainty]].  Measurements are repeated and full experiments are replicated to help identify the sources of variation, to better estimate the true effects of treatments, to further strengthen the experiment's reliability and validity, and to add to the existing knowledge of the topic.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dr. Hani|title=Replication study|url=http://www.experiment-resources.com/replication-study.html|accessdate=27 October 2011|year=2009}}</ref> However, certain conditions must be met before the replication of the experiment is commenced: the original research question has been published in a peer-reviewed journal or widely cited, the researcher is independent of the original experiment, the researcher must first try to replicate the original findings using the original data, and the write-up should state that the study conducted is a replication study that tried to follow the original study as strictly as possible.<ref>{{cite web|last=Burman|first=Leonard E.|title=A call for replication studies|url=http://pfr.sagepub.com|publisher=Public Finance Review|accessdate=27 October 2011|coauthors=Robert W. Reed, James Alm|pages=787–793|format=journal article|doi=10.1177/1091142110385210|year=2010}}</ref>
 
;[[Blocking (statistics)|Blocking]]
:Blocking is the arrangement of experimental units into groups (blocks/lots) consisting of units that are similar to one another. Blocking reduces known but irrelevant sources of variation between units and thus allows greater precision in the estimation of the source of variation under study.
 
;[[Orthogonality]]
[[File:Factorial Design.svg|thumb|Example of orthogonal factorial design]]
:Orthogonality concerns the forms of comparison (contrasts) that can be legitimately and efficiently carried out. Contrasts can be represented by vectors and sets of orthogonal contrasts are uncorrelated and independently distributed if the data are normal. Because of this independence, each orthogonal treatment provides different information to the others. If there are ''T'' treatments and ''T'' – 1 orthogonal contrasts, all the information that can be captured from the experiment is obtainable from the set of contrasts.
 
;[[Factorial experiment]]s
:Use of factorial experiments instead of the one-factor-at-a-time method.  These are efficient at evaluating the effects and possible [[Interaction (statistics)|interactions]] of several factors (independent variables). Analysis of [[experiment]] design is built on the foundation of the [[analysis of variance]], a collection of models that partition the observed variance into components, according to what factors the experiment must estimate or test.
 
==Example==
[[Image:Balance à tabac 1850.JPG|right|240px]]
This example is attributed to [[Harold Hotelling]].<ref name="ref3">[[Herman Chernoff]], ''Sequential Analysis and Optimal Design'', [[Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics|SIAM]] Monograph, 1972.</ref>  It conveys some of the flavor of those aspects of the subject that involve combinatorial designs.
 
Weights of eight objects are measured using a [[pan balance]] and set of standard weights.  Each weighing measures the weight difference between objects in the left pan vs. any objects in the right pan by adding calibrated weights to the lighter pan until the balance is in equilibrium. Each measurement has a [[errors and residuals in statistics|random error]].  The average error is zero; the [[standard deviation]]s of the [[probability distribution]] of the errors is the same number σ on different weighings; and errors on different weighings are [[statistical independence|independent]].  Denote the true weights by
 
:<math>\theta_1, \dots, \theta_8.\,</math>
 
We consider two different experiments:
 
# Weigh each object in one pan, with the other pan empty.  Let ''X''<sub>''i''</sub> be the measured weight of the ''i''th object, for ''i'' = 1, ..., 8.
# Do the eight weighings according to the following schedule and let ''Y''<sub>''i''</sub> be the measured difference for ''i'' = 1, ..., 8:
 
:: <math>
\begin{matrix}
& \mbox{left pan} & \mbox{right pan} \\
\mbox{1st weighing:} & 1\ 2\ 3\ 4\ 5\ 6\ 7\ 8 & \text{(empty)} \\
\mbox{2nd:} & 1\ 2\ 3\ 8\ & 4\ 5\ 6\ 7 \\
\mbox{3rd:} & 1\ 4\ 5\ 8\ & 2\ 3\ 6\ 7 \\
\mbox{4th:} & 1\ 6\ 7\ 8\ & 2\ 3\ 4\ 5 \\
\mbox{5th:} & 2\ 4\ 6\ 8\ & 1\ 3\ 5\ 7 \\
\mbox{6th:} & 2\ 5\ 7\ 8\ & 1\ 3\ 4\ 6 \\
\mbox{7th:} & 3\ 4\ 7\ 8\ & 1\ 2\ 5\ 6 \\
\mbox{8th:} & 3\ 5\ 6\ 8\ & 1\ 2\ 4\ 7
\end{matrix}
</math>
 
: Then the estimated value of the weight &theta;<sub>1</sub> is
 
:: <math>\widehat{\theta}_1 = \frac{Y_1 + Y_2 + Y_3 + Y_4 - Y_5 - Y_6 - Y_7 - Y_8}{8}. </math>
 
:Similar estimates can be found for the weights of the other items. For example
 
::<math>\widehat{\theta}_2 = \frac{Y_1 + Y_2 - Y_3 - Y_4 + Y_5 + Y_6 - Y_7 - Y_8}{8}.</math>
 
The question of design of experiments is: which experiment is better?
 
The variance of the estimate ''X''<sub>1</sub> of θ<sub>1</sub> is σ<sup>2</sup> if we use the first experiment. But if we use the second experiment, the variance of the estimate given above is σ<sup>2</sub>/8.  Thus the second experiment gives us 8 times as much precision for the estimate of a single item, and estimates all items simultaneously, with the same precision. What the second experiment achieves with eight would require 64 weighings if the items are weighed separately. However, note that the estimates for the items obtained in the second experiment have errors that correlate with each other.
 
Many problems of the design of experiments involve [[combinatorial design]]s, as in this example.
 
==Discussion topics when setting up an experimental design==
An experimental design or randomized clinical trial requires careful consideration of several factors before actually doing the experiment.<ref>Ader, Mellenberg & Hand (2008) "Advising on Research Methods: A consultant's companion"</ref> An experimental design is the laying out of a detailed experimental plan in advance of doing the experiment. Some of the following topics have already been discussed in the principles of experimental design section:
 
1. How many factors does the design have? and are the levels of these factors fixed or random?
 
2. Are control conditions needed, and what should they be?
 
3. Manipulation checks; did the manipulation really work?
 
4. What are the background variables?
 
5. What is the sample size. How many units must be collected for the experiment to be generalisable and have enough power?
 
6. What is the relevance of interactions between factors?
 
7. What is the influence of delayed effects of substantive factors on outcomes?
 
8. How do response shifts affect self-report measures?
 
9. How feasible is repeated administration of the same measurement instruments to the same units at different occasions, with a post-test and follow-up tests?
 
10. What about using a proxy pretest?
 
11. Are there lurking variables?
 
12. Should the client/patient, researcher or even the analyst of the data be blind to conditions?
 
13. What is the feasibility of subsequent application of different conditions to the same units?
 
14. How many of each control and noise factors should be taken into account?
 
==Statistical control==
It is best that a process be in reasonable statistical control prior to conducting designed experiments.  When this is not possible, proper blocking, replication, and randomization allow for the careful conduct of designed experiments.<ref>Bisgaard, S (2008) "Must a Process be in Statistical Control before Conducting Designed Experiments?", ''Quality Engineering'', ASQ, 20 (2), pp 143 - 176</ref>
To control for nuisance variables, researchers institute '''control checks''' as additional measures.  Investigators should ensure that uncontrolled influences (e.g., source credibility perception) are measured do not skew the findings of the study. A [[manipulation checks|manipulation check]] is one example of a control check.  Manipulation checks allow investigators to isolate the chief variables to strengthen support that these variables are operating as planned.
 
One of the most important requirements of experimental research designs is the necessity of eliminating the effects of [[spurious relationship|spurious]], intervening, and [[antecedent variable]]s. In the most basic model, cause (X) leads to effect (Y). But there could be a third variable (Z) that influences (Y), and X might not be the true cause at all. Z is said to be a spurious variable and must be controlled for. The same is true for [[intervening variable]]s (a variable in between the supposed cause (X) and the effect (Y)), and anteceding variables (a variable prior to the supposed cause (X) that is the true cause). When a third variable is involved and has not been controlled for, the relation is said to be a [[zero order (statistics)|zero order]]{{disambiguation needed|date=August 2012}} relationship. In most practical applications of experimental research designs there are several causes (X1, X2, X3). In most designs, only one of these causes is manipulated at a time.
 
==Experimental designs after Fisher==
Some efficient designs for estimating several main effects were found independently and in near succession by [[Raj Chandra Bose]] and K. Kishen in 1940 at the [[Indian Statistical Institute]], but remained little known until the [[Plackett-Burman design]]s were published in ''[[Biometrika]]'' in 1946. About the same time, [[C. R. Rao]] introduced the concepts of [[orthogonal array]]s as experimental designs. This concept played a central role in the development of [[Taguchi methods]] by [[Genichi Taguchi]], which took place during his visit to Indian Statistical Institute in early 1950s. His methods were successfully applied and adopted by Japanese and Indian industries and subsequently were also embraced by US industry albeit with some reservations.
 
In 1950, [[Gertrude Mary Cox]] and [[William Gemmell Cochran]] published the book ''Experimental Designs,'' which became the major reference work on the design of experiments for statisticians for years afterwards.
 
Developments of the theory of [[linear model]]s have encompassed and surpassed the cases that concerned early writers. Today, the theory rests on advanced topics in [[linear algebra]], [[algebraic statistics|algebra]] and [[combinatorial design|combinatorics]].
 
As with other branches of statistics, experimental design is pursued using both [[frequentist statistics|frequentist]] and [[Bayesian experimental design|Bayesian]] approaches: In evaluating statistical procedures like experimental designs, [[frequentist statistics]] studies the [[sampling distribution]] while [[Bayesian statistics]] updates a [[Bayesian probability|probability distribution]] on the parameter space.
 
Some important contributors to the field of experimental designs are [[Charles Sanders Peirce|C. S. Peirce]], [[R. A. Fisher]], [[Frank Yates|F. Yates]], [[C. R. Rao]], [[R. C. Bose]], [[Jagdish N. Srivastava|J. N. Srivastava]], [[Shrikhande S. S.]],  [[D. Raghavarao]], [[William G. Cochran|W. G. Cochran]], [[Oscar Kempthorne|O. Kempthorne]], W. T. Federer, V. V. Fedorov, A. S. Hedayat, [[John Nelder|J. A. Nelder]], [[Rosemary A. Bailey|R. A. Bailey]], [[Jack Kiefer (mathematician)|J. Kiefer]], W. J. Studden, A. Pázman, F. Pukelsheim, [[David R. Cox|D. R. Cox]], H. P. Wynn, A. C. Atkinson, [[G. E. P. Box]] and [[Genichi Taguchi|G. Taguchi]].{{citation needed|date=November 2011}}  The textbooks of D. Montgomery and  R. Myers have reached generations of students and practitioners.<ref>{{cite book | last = Montgomery | first = Douglas
| title = Design and analysis of experiments
| publisher = John Wiley & Sons, Inc | location = Hoboken, NJ
| edition = 8th
| year = 2013 | isbn = 9781118146927 }}</ref>
<ref>
{{cite book
| last1 = Walpole | first1 = Ronald E.
| last2 = Myers | first2 = Raymond H.
| last3 = Myers | first3 = Sharon L.
| last4 = Ye | first4 = Keying
| title = Probability & statistics for engineers & scientists
| publisher = Pearson Prentice Hall | location = Upper Saddle River, NJ
| edition = 8
| year = 2007 | isbn = 978-0131877115 }}</ref>
<ref>
{{cite book
| last1 = Myers | first1 = Raymond H.
| last2 = Montgomery | first2 = Douglas C.
| last3 = Vining | first3 = G. Geoffrey
| last4 = Robinson | first4 = Timothy J.
| title = Generalized linear models : with applications in engineering and the sciences
| publisher = Wiley | location = Hoboken, N.J
| edition = 2
| year = 2010 | isbn = 978-0470454633 }}</ref>
 
==Human participant experimental design constraints==
Laws and ethical considerations preclude some carefully designed
experiments with human subjects.  Legal constraints are dependent on
[[Human subject research|jurisdiction]].  Constraints may involve
[[institutional review board]]s, [[informed consent]]
and [[confidentiality]] affecting both clinical (medical) trials and
behavioral and social science experiments.<ref>
{{cite book | last1 = Moore | first1 = David S.
| last2 = Notz | first2 = William I.
| title = Statistics : concepts and controversies
| publisher = W.H. Freeman | location = New York | year = 2006
| isbn = 9780716786368 | edition = 6th
| pages =  Chapter 7: Data ethics}}</ref>
In the field of toxicology, for example, experimentation is performed
on laboratory ''animals'' with the goal of defining safe exposure limits
for ''humans''.<ref>
{{cite book | last = Ottoboni | first = M. Alice
| title = The dose makes the poison : a plain-language guide to toxicology
| publisher = Van Nostrand Reinhold | location = New York, N.Y
| year = 1991 | isbn = 0442006608 | edition = 2nd }}</ref>  Balancing
the constraints are views from the medical field.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Glantz | first = Stanton A.
| title = Primer of biostatistics | edition = 3rd | year = 1992 |
isbn = 0-07-023511-2 }}</ref>  Regarding the randomization of patients,
"... if no one knows which therapy is better, there is no ethical
imperative to use one therapy or another." (p 380)  Regarding
experimental design, "...it is clearly not ethical to place subjects
at risk to collect data in a poorly designed study when this situation
can be easily avoided...". (p 393)
 
==See also==
{{Portal|Statistics}}
<div style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;">
* [[Adversarial collaboration]]
* [[Bayesian experimental design]]
* [[Clinical trial]]
*[[Computer experiment]]
* [[Control variable]]
* [[Controlling for a variable]]
* [[Experimetrics]]: application of [[econometrics]] to [[economics]] experiments.
* [[Factor analysis]]
* [[First-in-man study]]
* [[Glossary of experimental design]]
* [[Instrument effect]]
* [[Law of large numbers]]
* [[Manipulation checks]]
* [[Multifactor design of experiments software]]
* [[Probabilistic design]]
* [[Protocol (natural sciences)]]
* [[Quasi-experimental design]]
* [[Randomized block design]]
* [[Randomized controlled trial]]
* [[Research design]]
* [[Robust Parameter Design (RPD)|Robust Parameter Design]]
* [[Plackett–Burman design#Supersaturated designs|Supersaturated]] design
* [[Survey sampling]]
* [[Taguchi methods]]
 
</div>
 
==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}
 
==References==
*[[Charles Sanders Peirce|Peirce, C. S.]] (1877–1878), "Illustrations of the Logic of Science" (series), ''Popular Science Monthly'', vols. 12-13. Relevant individual papers:
** (1878 March), "The Doctrine of Chances", ''Popular Science Monthly'', v. 12, March issue, pp. [http://books.google.com/books?id=ZKMVAAAAYAAJ&jtp=604 604]–615.  ''Internet Archive'' [http://www.archive.org/stream/popscimonthly12yoummiss#page/612/mode/1up Eprint].
** (1878 April), "The Probability of Induction", ''Popular Science Monthly'', v. 12, pp. [http://books.google.com/books?id=ZKMVAAAAYAAJ&jtp=705 705]–718. ''Internet Archive'' [http://www.archive.org/stream/popscimonthly12yoummiss#page/715/mode/1up Eprint].
** (1878 June), "The Order of Nature", ''Popular Science Monthly'', v. 13, pp. [http://books.google.com/books?id=u8sWAQAAIAAJ&jtp=203 203]–217.''Internet Archive'' [http://www.archive.org/stream/popularsciencemo13newy#page/203/mode/1up Eprint].
** (1878 August), "Deduction, Induction, and Hypothesis", ''Popular Science Monthly'', v. 13, pp. [http://books.google.com/books?id=u8sWAQAAIAAJ&jtp=470 470]–482. ''Internet Archive'' [http://www.archive.org/stream/popularsciencemo13newy#page/470/mode/1up Eprint].
*[[Charles Sanders Peirce|Peirce, C. S.]] (1883), "A Theory of Probable Inference", ''Studies in Logic'', pp. [http://books.google.com/books?id=V7oIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA126 126-181], Little, Brown, and Company. (Reprinted 1983, John Benjamins Publishing Company, ISBN 90-272-3271-7)
 
==Further reading==
* {{Cite book|author=[http://stats.lse.ac.uk/atkinson/ Atkinson, A. C.] and [http://www.maths.manchester.ac.uk/~adonev/  Donev, A. N.] and [http://support.sas.com/publishing/bbu/companion_site/index_author.html#tobias Tobias, R. D.]|title=Optimum Experimental Designs, with SAS |url=http://books.google.se/books?id=oIHsrw6NBmoC|publisher=[http://www.us.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/Mathematics/ProbabilityStatistics/~~/dmlldz11c2EmY2k9OTc4MDE5OTI5NjYwNg==  Oxford University Press]|year=2007 |pages=511+xvi |isbn=978-0-19-929660-6 |doi=}}
* {{Cite book|authorlink=Rosemary A. Bailey|first=R.A.|last=Bailey|title=Design of Comparative Experiments|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2008 |isbn=978-0-521-68357-9|url=http://www.maths.qmul.ac.uk/~rab/DOEbook}} Pre-publication chapters are available on-line.
* Box, G. E. P., & Draper, N. R. (1987). ''Empirical model-building and response surfaces''. New York: Wiley.
* [[George E. P. Box|Box, G. E.]], Hunter,W.G., Hunter, J.S., Hunter,W.G., "Statistics for Experimenters: Design, Innovation, and Discovery", 2nd Edition, Wiley, 2005, ISBN 0-471-71813-0
* {{Cite book
|author=Caliński, Tadeusz and Kageyama, Sanpei
|title=Block designs: A Randomization approach, Volume '''I''': Analysis
|series=Lecture Notes in Statistics
|volume=150
|publisher=Springer-Verlag
|location=New York
|year=2000
|isbn=0-387-98578-6
}}
*  {{Cite book| title=Design and Analysis of Experiments | series=Handbook of Statistics| volume=13|editor=Ghosh, S. and [[Calyampudi Radhakrishna Rao|Rao, C. R.]] | publisher=North-Holland| year=1996| isbn=0-444-82061-2}}
*{{Cite book
|author=Goos, Peter and Jones, Bradley
|year=2011
|title=[http://eu.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0470744618.html Optimal Design of Experiments: A Case Study Approach]
|publisher=Wiley
|isbn=978-0-470-74461-1}}
* {{cite journal|first=Ian |last=Hacking|  authorlink=Ian Hacking | title=Telepathy: Origins of Randomization in Experimental Design|journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]|issue=3|volume=79|date=September 1988 |pages=427–451|jstor=234674 |mr=1013489|doi=10.1086/354775}}
*{{Cite book
|author=Hinkelmann, Klaus and [[Oscar Kempthorne|Kempthorne, Oscar]]
|year=2008
|title=Design and Analysis of Experiments
|volume=I and II
|edition=Second
|publisher=[http://eu.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0470385510.html Wiley]
|isbn=978-0-470-38551-7}}
**{{Cite book
|author=Hinkelmann, Klaus and [[Oscar Kempthorne|Kempthorne, Oscar]]
|year=2008
|title=Design and Analysis of Experiments, Volume I: Introduction to Experimental Design
|url=http://books.google.com/?id=T3wWj2kVYZgC&printsec=frontcover
|edition=Second
|publisher=[http://eu.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0471727563.html Wiley]
|isbn=978-0-471-72756-9
}}
**{{Cite book
|author=Hinkelmann, Klaus and [[Oscar Kempthorne|Kempthorne, Oscar]]
|year=2005
|title=Design and Analysis of Experiments, Volume 2: Advanced Experimental Design
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=GiYc5nRVKf8C
|edition=First
|publisher=[http://eu.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0471551775.html Wiley]
|isbn=978-0-471-55177-5
}}
* Mason, R. L., Gunst, R. F., & Hess, J. L. (1989). ''Statistical design and analysis of experiments with applications to engineering and science''. New York: Wiley.
* [[Judea Pearl|Pearl, Judea]]. ''Causality: Models, Reasoning and Inference'', Cambridge University Press, 2000.
* [[Charles Sanders Peirce|Peirce, C. S.]] (1876), "Note on the Theory of the Economy of Research", Appendix No. 14 in ''Coast Survey Report'', pp.&nbsp;197–201, [http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/cgs/001_pdf/CSC-0025.PDF#page=222 NOAA PDF Eprint]. Reprinted 1958 in ''Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce'' '''7''', paragraphs 139–157 and in 1967 in ''[http://or.journal.informs.org/cgi/content/abstract/15/4/643 Operations Research]'' '''15''' (4): pp.&nbsp;643–648, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/168276 abstract at JSTOR]. {{cite journal| doi=10.1287/opre.15.4.643| title=Note on the Theory of the Economy of Research| year=1967| last1=Peirce| first1=C. S.| journal=Operations Research| volume=15| issue=4| pages=643}}
* {{cite journal
| author=Smith, Kirstine
|title=On the Standard Deviations of Adjusted and Interpolated Values of an Observed Polynomial Function and its Constants and the Guidance They Give Towards a Proper Choice of the Distribution of the Observations| year=1918
| journal=[[Biometrika]]
| volume=12
| pages=1&ndash;85
| jstor=2331929
| issue=1
* Taguchi, G. (1987). ''Jikken keikakuho'' (3rd ed., Vol I & II). Tokyo: Maruzen. English translation edited by D. Clausing. ''System of experimental design''. New York: UNIPUB/Kraus International.
}}
 
==External links==
*A [http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/pri/section1/pri1.htm chapter] from a [http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/ "NIST/SEMATECH Handbook on Engineering Statistics"] at [[National Institute of Standards and Technology|NIST]]
*[http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/pri/section3/pri3362.htm Box–Behnken designs] from a [http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/ "NIST/SEMATECH Handbook on Engineering Statistics"] ] at [[National Institute of Standards and Technology|NIST]]
*[http://www.curiouscat.net/library/designofexperiments.cfm Articles on Design of Experiments]
*[http://www.statease.com/articles.html Case Studies and Articles on Design of Experiments (DOE)]
*[http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5001888588 Czitrom (1999) "One-Factor-at-a-Time Versus Designed Experiments", American Statistician, 53, 2.]
*[http://www.iasri.res.in/design Design Resources Server] a mobile library on Design of Experiments. The server is dynamic in nature and new additions would be posted on this site from time to time.
*[http://www.research.att.com/~njas/gosset/index.html Gosset: A General-Purpose Program for Designing Experiments]
*[http://www.wright.edu/~dvoss/book/DeanVoss.html SAS Examples for Experimental Design]
*[http://sumowiki.intec.ugent.be Matlab '''SU'''rrogate '''MO'''deling Toolbox - SUMO Toolbox] – Matlab code for Design of Experiments + Sequential Design + Surrogate Modeling
*[http://web.cs.dal.ca/~peter/designdb/ Design DB]: A database of combinatorial, statistical, experimental block designs
*[http://obdoe.com/student/DOEResources/Assistant/assistantintro.php The I-Optimal Design Assistant]: a free on-line library of I-Optimal designs
*[http://norvig.com/experiment-design.html Warning Signs in Experimental Design and Interpretation] by Peter Norvig, chief of research at Google
*[http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/desexper.php Knowledge Base, Research Methods]: A good explanation of the basic idea of experimental designs
*[http://www.juliantrubin.com/fairguide/scientificmethod.html The Controlled Experiment vs. The Comparative Experiment]: "How to experiment" for science fair projects
*[http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/MCS.2010.937677 Spall, J. C. (2010), “Factorial Design for Choosing Input Values in Experimentation: Generating Informative Data for System Identification,” IEEE Control Systems Magazine, vol. 30(5), pp. 38–53.] General introduction from a systems perspective
*[http://www.etas.com/en/products/ascmo.php DOE used for engine calibration reduces fuel consumption by 2 to 4 percent]
{{Library resources box
|by=no
|onlinebooks=no
|others=no
|about=yes
|label=Experimental design}}
 
{{Experimental design|state=collapsed}}
{{Design}}
{{Statistics|collection|state=collapsed<!-- expanded -->}}
{{Medical research studies|state=collapsed}}
 
{{DEFAULTSORT:Design Of Experiments}}
[[Category:Design of experiments]]
[[Category:Statistical methods]]
[[Category:Statistical theory]]
[[Category:Industrial engineering]]
[[Category:Systems engineering]]
[[Category:Quality control]]
[[Category:Quality]]
[[Category:Quantitative research]]
[[Category:Engineering statistics]]
[[Category:Experiments]]

Revision as of 18:24, 16 January 2014

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Design of experiments with full factorial design (left), response surface with second-degree polynomial (right)

In general usage, design of experiments (DOE) or experimental design is the design of any information-gathering exercises where variation is present, whether under the full control of the experimenter or not. However, in statistics, these terms are usually used for controlled experiments. Formal planned experimentation is often used in evaluating physical objects, chemical formulations, structures, components, and materials. Other types of study, and their design, are discussed in the articles on computer experiments, opinion polls and statistical surveys (which are types of observational study), natural experiments and quasi-experiments (for example, quasi-experimental design). See Experiment for the distinction between these types of experiments or studies.

In the design of experiments, the experimenter is often interested in the effect of some process or intervention (the "treatment") on some objects (the "experimental units"), which may be people, parts of people, groups of people, plants, animals, etc. Design of experiments is thus a discipline that has very broad application across all the natural and social sciences and engineering.

History of development

Controlled experimentation on scurvy

In 1747, while serving as surgeon on HMS Salisbury, James Lind carried out a controlled experiment to develop a cure for scurvy.[1]

Lind selected 12 men from the ship, all suffering from scurvy. Lind limited his subjects to men who "were as similar as I could have them", that is he provided strict entry requirements to reduce extraneous variation. He divided them into six pairs, giving each pair different supplements to their basic diet for two weeks. The treatments were all remedies that had been proposed:

  • A quart of cider every day
  • Twenty five gutts (drops) of elixir vitriol (sulphuric acid) three times a day upon an empty stomach
  • One half-pint of seawater every day
  • A mixture of garlic, mustard, and horseradish in a lump the size of a nutmeg
  • Two spoonfuls of vinegar three times a day
  • Two oranges and one lemon every day

The men given citrus fruits recovered dramatically within a week. One of them returned to duty after six days, and the others cared for the rest. The other subjects experienced some improvement, but nothing compared to the subjects who ate the citrus fruits, which proved substantially superior to the other treatments.

Statistical experiments, following Charles S. Peirce

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Randomized experiments

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Optimal designs for regression models

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Sequences of experiments

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is changing into a rising pattern among Singaporeans as the standard of living is increasing over time and more Singaporeans have abundance of capital to invest on properties. Investing in the personal properties in Singapore I would like to applaud you for arising with such a book which covers the secrets and techniques and tips of among the profitable Singapore property buyers. I believe many novice investors will profit quite a bit from studying and making use of some of the tips shared by the gurus." – Woo Chee Hoe Special bonus for consumers of Secrets of Singapore Property Gurus Actually, I can't consider one other resource on the market that teaches you all the points above about Singapore property at such a low value. Can you? Condominium For Sale (D09) – Yong An Park For Lease

In 12 months 2013, c ommercial retails, shoebox residences and mass market properties continued to be the celebrities of the property market. Models are snapped up in report time and at document breaking prices. Builders are having fun with overwhelming demand and patrons need more. We feel that these segments of the property market are booming is a repercussion of the property cooling measures no.6 and no. 7. With additional buyer's stamp responsibility imposed on residential properties, buyers change their focus to commercial and industrial properties. I imagine every property purchasers need their property funding to understand in value. The use of a sequence of experiments, where the design of each may depend on the results of previous experiments, including the possible decision to stop experimenting, is within the scope of Sequential analysis, a field that was pioneered[7] by Abraham Wald in the context of sequential tests of statistical hypotheses.[8] Herman Chernoff wrote an overview of optimal sequential designs,[9] while adaptive designs have been surveyed by S. Zacks.[10] One specific type of sequential design is the "two-armed bandit", generalized to the multi-armed bandit, on which early work was done by Herbert Robbins in 1952.[11]

Principles of experimental design, following Ronald A. Fisher

A methodology for designing experiments was proposed by Ronald A. Fisher, in his innovative books: "The Arrangement of Field Experiments" (1926) and The Design of Experiments (1935). Much of his pioneering work dealt with agricultural applications of statistical methods. As a mundane example, he described how to test the hypothesis that a certain lady could distinguish by flavour alone whether the milk or the tea was first placed in the cup. These methods have been broadly adapted in the physical and social sciences, and are still used in agricultural engineering. The concepts presented here differ from the design and analysis of computer experiments.

Comparison
In some fields of study it is not possible to have independent measurements to a traceable standard. Comparisons between treatments are much more valuable and are usually preferable. Often one compares against a scientific control or traditional treatment that acts as baseline.
Randomization
Random assignment is the process of assigning individuals at random to groups or to different groups in an experiment. The random assignment of individuals to groups (or conditions within a group) distinguishes a rigorous, "true" experiment from an adequate, but less-than-rigorous, "quasi-experiment".[12] There is an extensive body of mathematical theory that explores the consequences of making the allocation of units to treatments by means of some random mechanism such as tables of random numbers, or the use of randomization devices such as playing cards or dice. Provided the sample size is adequate, the risks associated with random allocation (such as failing to obtain a representative sample in a survey, or having a serious imbalance in a key characteristic between a treatment group and a control group) are calculable and hence can be managed down to an acceptable level. Random does not mean haphazard, and great care must be taken that appropriate random methods are used.
Replication
Measurements are usually subject to variation and uncertainty. Measurements are repeated and full experiments are replicated to help identify the sources of variation, to better estimate the true effects of treatments, to further strengthen the experiment's reliability and validity, and to add to the existing knowledge of the topic.[13] However, certain conditions must be met before the replication of the experiment is commenced: the original research question has been published in a peer-reviewed journal or widely cited, the researcher is independent of the original experiment, the researcher must first try to replicate the original findings using the original data, and the write-up should state that the study conducted is a replication study that tried to follow the original study as strictly as possible.[14]
Blocking
Blocking is the arrangement of experimental units into groups (blocks/lots) consisting of units that are similar to one another. Blocking reduces known but irrelevant sources of variation between units and thus allows greater precision in the estimation of the source of variation under study.
Orthogonality
Example of orthogonal factorial design
Orthogonality concerns the forms of comparison (contrasts) that can be legitimately and efficiently carried out. Contrasts can be represented by vectors and sets of orthogonal contrasts are uncorrelated and independently distributed if the data are normal. Because of this independence, each orthogonal treatment provides different information to the others. If there are T treatments and T – 1 orthogonal contrasts, all the information that can be captured from the experiment is obtainable from the set of contrasts.
Factorial experiments
Use of factorial experiments instead of the one-factor-at-a-time method. These are efficient at evaluating the effects and possible interactions of several factors (independent variables). Analysis of experiment design is built on the foundation of the analysis of variance, a collection of models that partition the observed variance into components, according to what factors the experiment must estimate or test.

Example

This example is attributed to Harold Hotelling.[9] It conveys some of the flavor of those aspects of the subject that involve combinatorial designs.

Weights of eight objects are measured using a pan balance and set of standard weights. Each weighing measures the weight difference between objects in the left pan vs. any objects in the right pan by adding calibrated weights to the lighter pan until the balance is in equilibrium. Each measurement has a random error. The average error is zero; the standard deviations of the probability distribution of the errors is the same number σ on different weighings; and errors on different weighings are independent. Denote the true weights by

We consider two different experiments:

  1. Weigh each object in one pan, with the other pan empty. Let Xi be the measured weight of the ith object, for i = 1, ..., 8.
  2. Do the eight weighings according to the following schedule and let Yi be the measured difference for i = 1, ..., 8:
Then the estimated value of the weight θ1 is
Similar estimates can be found for the weights of the other items. For example

The question of design of experiments is: which experiment is better?

The variance of the estimate X1 of θ1 is σ2 if we use the first experiment. But if we use the second experiment, the variance of the estimate given above is σ2/8. Thus the second experiment gives us 8 times as much precision for the estimate of a single item, and estimates all items simultaneously, with the same precision. What the second experiment achieves with eight would require 64 weighings if the items are weighed separately. However, note that the estimates for the items obtained in the second experiment have errors that correlate with each other.

Many problems of the design of experiments involve combinatorial designs, as in this example.

Discussion topics when setting up an experimental design

An experimental design or randomized clinical trial requires careful consideration of several factors before actually doing the experiment.[15] An experimental design is the laying out of a detailed experimental plan in advance of doing the experiment. Some of the following topics have already been discussed in the principles of experimental design section:

1. How many factors does the design have? and are the levels of these factors fixed or random?

2. Are control conditions needed, and what should they be?

3. Manipulation checks; did the manipulation really work?

4. What are the background variables?

5. What is the sample size. How many units must be collected for the experiment to be generalisable and have enough power?

6. What is the relevance of interactions between factors?

7. What is the influence of delayed effects of substantive factors on outcomes?

8. How do response shifts affect self-report measures?

9. How feasible is repeated administration of the same measurement instruments to the same units at different occasions, with a post-test and follow-up tests?

10. What about using a proxy pretest?

11. Are there lurking variables?

12. Should the client/patient, researcher or even the analyst of the data be blind to conditions?

13. What is the feasibility of subsequent application of different conditions to the same units?

14. How many of each control and noise factors should be taken into account?

Statistical control

It is best that a process be in reasonable statistical control prior to conducting designed experiments. When this is not possible, proper blocking, replication, and randomization allow for the careful conduct of designed experiments.[16] To control for nuisance variables, researchers institute control checks as additional measures. Investigators should ensure that uncontrolled influences (e.g., source credibility perception) are measured do not skew the findings of the study. A manipulation check is one example of a control check. Manipulation checks allow investigators to isolate the chief variables to strengthen support that these variables are operating as planned.

One of the most important requirements of experimental research designs is the necessity of eliminating the effects of spurious, intervening, and antecedent variables. In the most basic model, cause (X) leads to effect (Y). But there could be a third variable (Z) that influences (Y), and X might not be the true cause at all. Z is said to be a spurious variable and must be controlled for. The same is true for intervening variables (a variable in between the supposed cause (X) and the effect (Y)), and anteceding variables (a variable prior to the supposed cause (X) that is the true cause). When a third variable is involved and has not been controlled for, the relation is said to be a zero orderTemplate:Disambiguation needed relationship. In most practical applications of experimental research designs there are several causes (X1, X2, X3). In most designs, only one of these causes is manipulated at a time.

Experimental designs after Fisher

Some efficient designs for estimating several main effects were found independently and in near succession by Raj Chandra Bose and K. Kishen in 1940 at the Indian Statistical Institute, but remained little known until the Plackett-Burman designs were published in Biometrika in 1946. About the same time, C. R. Rao introduced the concepts of orthogonal arrays as experimental designs. This concept played a central role in the development of Taguchi methods by Genichi Taguchi, which took place during his visit to Indian Statistical Institute in early 1950s. His methods were successfully applied and adopted by Japanese and Indian industries and subsequently were also embraced by US industry albeit with some reservations.

In 1950, Gertrude Mary Cox and William Gemmell Cochran published the book Experimental Designs, which became the major reference work on the design of experiments for statisticians for years afterwards.

Developments of the theory of linear models have encompassed and surpassed the cases that concerned early writers. Today, the theory rests on advanced topics in linear algebra, algebra and combinatorics.

As with other branches of statistics, experimental design is pursued using both frequentist and Bayesian approaches: In evaluating statistical procedures like experimental designs, frequentist statistics studies the sampling distribution while Bayesian statistics updates a probability distribution on the parameter space.

Some important contributors to the field of experimental designs are C. S. Peirce, R. A. Fisher, F. Yates, C. R. Rao, R. C. Bose, J. N. Srivastava, Shrikhande S. S., D. Raghavarao, W. G. Cochran, O. Kempthorne, W. T. Federer, V. V. Fedorov, A. S. Hedayat, J. A. Nelder, R. A. Bailey, J. Kiefer, W. J. Studden, A. Pázman, F. Pukelsheim, D. R. Cox, H. P. Wynn, A. C. Atkinson, G. E. P. Box and G. Taguchi.Potter or Ceramic Artist Truman Bedell from Rexton, has interests which include ceramics, best property developers in singapore developers in singapore and scrabble. Was especially enthused after visiting Alejandro de Humboldt National Park. The textbooks of D. Montgomery and R. Myers have reached generations of students and practitioners.[17] [18] [19]

Human participant experimental design constraints

Laws and ethical considerations preclude some carefully designed experiments with human subjects. Legal constraints are dependent on jurisdiction. Constraints may involve institutional review boards, informed consent and confidentiality affecting both clinical (medical) trials and behavioral and social science experiments.[20] In the field of toxicology, for example, experimentation is performed on laboratory animals with the goal of defining safe exposure limits for humans.[21] Balancing the constraints are views from the medical field.[22] Regarding the randomization of patients, "... if no one knows which therapy is better, there is no ethical imperative to use one therapy or another." (p 380) Regarding experimental design, "...it is clearly not ethical to place subjects at risk to collect data in a poorly designed study when this situation can be easily avoided...". (p 393)

See also

Sportspersons Hyslop from Nicolet, usually spends time with pastimes for example martial arts, property developers condominium in singapore singapore and hot rods. Maintains a trip site and has lots to write about after touring Gulf of Porto: Calanche of Piana.

Notes

43 year old Petroleum Engineer Harry from Deep River, usually spends time with hobbies and interests like renting movies, property developers in singapore new condominium and vehicle racing. Constantly enjoys going to destinations like Camino Real de Tierra Adentro.

References

  • Peirce, C. S. (1877–1878), "Illustrations of the Logic of Science" (series), Popular Science Monthly, vols. 12-13. Relevant individual papers:
    • (1878 March), "The Doctrine of Chances", Popular Science Monthly, v. 12, March issue, pp. 604–615. Internet Archive Eprint.
    • (1878 April), "The Probability of Induction", Popular Science Monthly, v. 12, pp. 705–718. Internet Archive Eprint.
    • (1878 June), "The Order of Nature", Popular Science Monthly, v. 13, pp. 203–217.Internet Archive Eprint.
    • (1878 August), "Deduction, Induction, and Hypothesis", Popular Science Monthly, v. 13, pp. 470–482. Internet Archive Eprint.
  • Peirce, C. S. (1883), "A Theory of Probable Inference", Studies in Logic, pp. 126-181, Little, Brown, and Company. (Reprinted 1983, John Benjamins Publishing Company, ISBN 90-272-3271-7)

Further reading

  • 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  • 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 Pre-publication chapters are available on-line.
  • Box, G. E. P., & Draper, N. R. (1987). Empirical model-building and response surfaces. New York: Wiley.
  • Box, G. E., Hunter,W.G., Hunter, J.S., Hunter,W.G., "Statistics for Experimenters: Design, Innovation, and Discovery", 2nd Edition, Wiley, 2005, ISBN 0-471-71813-0
  • 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  • 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  • 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  • One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  • 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
    • 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

      My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
    • 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

      My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  • Mason, R. L., Gunst, R. F., & Hess, J. L. (1989). Statistical design and analysis of experiments with applications to engineering and science. New York: Wiley.
  • Pearl, Judea. Causality: Models, Reasoning and Inference, Cambridge University Press, 2000.
  • Peirce, C. S. (1876), "Note on the Theory of the Economy of Research", Appendix No. 14 in Coast Survey Report, pp. 197–201, NOAA PDF Eprint. Reprinted 1958 in Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce 7, paragraphs 139–157 and in 1967 in Operations Research 15 (4): pp. 643–648, abstract at JSTOR. One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  • One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang

External links

Template:Library resources box

Template:Experimental design Template:Design Template:Statistics Template:Medical research studies

  1. ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  6. ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang, actually published 1879, NOAA PDF Eprint.
    Reprinted in Collected Papers 7, paragraphs 139–157, also in Writings 4, pp. 72–78, and in One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  7. ↑ Johnson, N.L. (1961). "Sequential analysis: a survey." Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A. Vol. 124 (3), 372–411. (pages 375–376)
  8. ↑ Wald, A. (1945) "Sequential Tests of Statistical Hypotheses", Annals of Mathematical Statistics, 16 (2), 117–186.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Herman Chernoff, Sequential Analysis and Optimal Design, SIAM Monograph, 1972.
  10. ↑ Zacks, S. (1996) "Adaptive Designs for Parametric Models". In: Ghosh, S. and Rao, C. R., (Eds) (1996). "Design and Analysis of Experiments," Handbook of Statistics, Volume 13. North-Holland. ISBN 0-444-82061-2. (pages 151–180)
  11. ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  12. ↑ Creswell, J.W. (2008). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (3rd). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. 2008, p. 300. ISBN 0-13-613550-1
  13. ↑ Template:Cite web
  14. ↑ Template:Cite web
  15. ↑ Ader, Mellenberg & Hand (2008) "Advising on Research Methods: A consultant's companion"
  16. ↑ Bisgaard, S (2008) "Must a Process be in Statistical Control before Conducting Designed Experiments?", Quality Engineering, ASQ, 20 (2), pp 143 - 176
  17. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  18. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  19. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  20. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  21. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  22. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
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