Electroweak interaction

Template:Standard model of particle physics In particle physics, the electroweak interaction is the unified description of two of the four known fundamental interactions of nature: electromagnetism and the weak interaction. Although these two forces appear very different at everyday low energies, the theory models them as two different aspects of the same force. Above the unification energy, on the order of 100 GeV, they would merge into a single electroweak force. Thus if the universe is hot enough (approximately 10¹⁵ K, a temperature exceeded until shortly after the Big Bang) then the electromagnetic force and weak force merge into a combined electroweak force. During the electroweak epoch, the electroweak force separated from the strong force. During the quark epoch, the electroweak force split into the electromagnetic and weak force.

For contributions to the unification of the weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, Abdus Salam, Sheldon Glashow and Steven Weinberg were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979. The existence of the electroweak interactions was experimentally established in two stages, the first being the discovery of neutral currents in neutrino scattering by the Gargamelle collaboration in 1973, and the second in 1983 by the UA1 and the UA2 collaborations that involved the discovery of the W and Z gauge bosons in proton–antiproton collisions at the converted Super Proton Synchrotron. In 1999, Gerardus 't Hooft and Martinus Veltman were awarded the Nobel prize for showing that the electroweak theory is renormalizable.

Formulation

The pattern of weak isospin, T₃, and weak hypercharge, Y_W, of the known elementary particles, showing electric charge, Q, along the weak mixing angle. The neutral Higgs field (circled) breaks the electroweak symmetry and interacts with other particles to give them mass. Three components of the Higgs field become part of the massive W and Z bosons.

Mathematically, the unification is accomplished under an SU(2) × U(1) gauge group. The corresponding gauge bosons are the three W bosons of weak isospin from SU(2) (Template:SubatomicParticle, Template:SubatomicParticle, and Template:SubatomicParticle), and the Template:SubatomicParticle boson of weak hypercharge from U(1), respectively, all of which are massless.

In the Standard Model, the [[W and Z bosons|Template:SubatomicParticle and Template:SubatomicParticle bosons]], and the photon, are produced by the spontaneous symmetry breaking of the electroweak symmetry from SU(2) × U(1)_Y to U(1)_em, caused by the Higgs mechanism (see also Higgs boson). U(1)_Y and U(1)_em are different copies of U(1); the generator of U(1)_em is given by Q = Y/2 + I₃, where Y is the generator of U(1)_Y (called the weak hypercharge), and I₃ is one of the SU(2) generators (a component of weak isospin).

The spontaneous symmetry breaking causes the Template:SubatomicParticle and Template:SubatomicParticle bosons to coalesce together into two different bosons – the Template:SubatomicParticle boson, and the photon (γ) as follows:

${\begin{pmatrix}\gamma \\Z^{0}\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}\cos \theta _{W}&\sin \theta _{W}\\-\sin \theta _{W}&\cos \theta _{W}\end{pmatrix}}{\begin{pmatrix}B^{0}\\W^{0}\end{pmatrix}}$

Where θ_W is the weak mixing angle. The axes representing the particles have essentially just been rotated, in the (Template:SubatomicParticle, Template:SubatomicParticle) plane, by the angle θ_W. This also introduces a discrepancy between the mass of the Template:SubatomicParticle and the mass of the Template:SubatomicParticle particles (denoted as M_Z and M_W, respectively);

$M_{Z}={\frac {M_{W}}{\cos \theta _{W}}}$

The distinction between electromagnetism and the weak force arises because there is a (nontrivial) linear combination of Y and I₃ that vanishes for the Higgs boson (it is an eigenstate of both Y and I₃, so the coefficients may be taken as −I₃ and Y): U(1)_em is defined to be the group generated by this linear combination, and is unbroken because it does not interact with the Higgs.

Lagrangian

Before electroweak symmetry breaking

The Lagrangian for the electroweak interactions is divided into four parts before electroweak symmetry breaking

${\mathcal {L}}_{EW}={\mathcal {L}}_{g}+{\mathcal {L}}_{f}+{\mathcal {L}}_{h}+{\mathcal {L}}_{y}.$

The ${\mathcal {L}}_{g}$ term describes the interaction between the three W particles and the B particle.

${\mathcal {L}}_{g}=-{\frac {1}{4}}W^{a\mu \nu }W_{\mu \nu }^{a}-{\frac {1}{4}}B^{\mu \nu }B_{\mu \nu }$,

where $W^{a\mu \nu }$ ($a=1,2,3$) and $B^{\mu \nu }$ are the field strength tensors for the weak isospin and weak hypercharge fields.

${\mathcal {L}}_{f}$ is the kinetic term for the Standard Model fermions. The interaction of the gauge bosons and the fermions are through the gauge covariant derivative.

${\mathcal {L}}_{f}={\overline {Q}}_{i}iD\!\!\!\!/\;Q_{i}+{\overline {u}}_{i}iD\!\!\!\!/\;u_{i}+{\overline {d}}_{i}iD\!\!\!\!/\;d_{i}+{\overline {L}}_{i}iD\!\!\!\!/\;L_{i}+{\overline {e}}_{i}iD\!\!\!\!/\;e_{i}$,

where the subscript $i$ runs over the three generations of fermions, $Q$, $u$, and $d$ are the left-handed doublet, right-handed singlet up, and right handed singlet down quark fields, and $L$ and $e$ are the left-handed doublet and right-handed singlet electron fields.

The h term describes the Higgs field F.

${\mathcal {L}}_{h}=|D_{\mu }h|^{2}-\lambda \left(|h|^{2}-{\frac {v^{2}}{2}}\right)^{2}$

The y term gives the Yukawa interaction that generates the fermion masses after the Higgs acquires a vacuum expectation value.

${\mathcal {L}}_{y}=-y_{u\,ij}\epsilon ^{ab}\,h_{b}^{\dagger }\,{\overline {Q}}_{ia}u_{j}^{c}-y_{d\,ij}\,h\,{\overline {Q}}_{i}d_{j}^{c}-y_{e\,ij}\,h\,{\overline {L}}_{i}e_{j}^{c}+h.c.$

After electroweak symmetry breaking

The Lagrangian reorganizes itself after the Higgs boson acquires a vacuum expectation value. Due to its complexity, this Lagrangian is best described by breaking it up into several parts as follows.

${\mathcal {L}}_{EW}={\mathcal {L}}_{K}+{\mathcal {L}}_{N}+{\mathcal {L}}_{C}+{\mathcal {L}}_{H}+{\mathcal {L}}_{HV}+{\mathcal {L}}_{WWV}+{\mathcal {L}}_{WWVV}+{\mathcal {L}}_{Y}$

The kinetic term ${\mathcal {L}}_{K}$ contains all the quadratic terms of the Lagrangian, which include the dynamic terms (the partial derivatives) and the mass terms (conspicuously absent from the Lagrangian before symmetry breaking)

${\begin{aligned}{\mathcal {L}}_{K}=\sum _{f}{\overline {f}}(i\partial \!\!\!/\!\;-m_{f})f-{\frac {1}{4}}A_{\mu \nu }A^{\mu \nu }-{\frac {1}{2}}W_{\mu \nu }^{+}W^{-\mu \nu }+m_{W}^{2}W_{\mu }^{+}W^{-\mu }\\\qquad -{\frac {1}{4}}Z_{\mu \nu }Z^{\mu \nu }+{\frac {1}{2}}m_{Z}^{2}Z_{\mu }Z^{\mu }+{\frac {1}{2}}(\partial ^{\mu }H)(\partial _{\mu }H)-{\frac {1}{2}}m_{H}^{2}H^{2}\end{aligned}}$

where the sum runs over all the fermions of the theory (quarks and leptons), and the fields $A_{\mu \nu }^{}$, $Z_{\mu \nu }^{}$, $W_{\mu \nu }^{-}$, and $W_{\mu \nu }^{+}\equiv (W_{\mu \nu }^{-})^{\dagger }$ are given as

$X_{\mu \nu }=\partial _{\mu }X_{\nu }-\partial _{\nu }X_{\mu }+gf^{abc}X_{\mu }^{b}X_{\nu }^{c}$, (replace X by the relevant field, and f^abc with the structure constants for the gauge group).

The neutral current ${\mathcal {L}}_{N}$ and charged current ${\mathcal {L}}_{C}$ components of the Lagrangian contain the interactions between the fermions and gauge bosons.

${\mathcal {L}}_{N}=eJ_{\mu }^{em}A^{\mu }+{\frac {g}{\cos \theta _{W}}}(J_{\mu }^{3}-\sin ^{2}\theta _{W}J_{\mu }^{em})Z^{\mu }$,

where the electromagnetic current $J_{\mu }^{em}$ and the neutral weak current $J_{\mu }^{3}$ are

$J_{\mu }^{em}=\sum _{f}q_{f}{\overline {f}}\gamma _{\mu }f$,

and

$J_{\mu }^{3}=\sum _{f}I_{f}^{3}{\overline {f}}\gamma _{\mu }{\frac {1-\gamma ^{5}}{2}}f$

$q_{f}^{}$ and $I_{f}^{3}$ are the fermions' electric charges and weak isospin.

The charged current part of the Lagrangian is given by

${\mathcal {L}}_{C}=-{\frac {g}{\sqrt {2}}}\left[{\overline {u}}_{i}\gamma ^{\mu }{\frac {1-\gamma ^{5}}{2}}M_{ij}^{CKM}d_{j}+{\overline {\nu }}_{i}\gamma ^{\mu }{\frac {1-\gamma ^{5}}{2}}e_{i}\right]W_{\mu }^{+}+h.c.$

${\mathcal {L}}_{H}$ contains the Higgs three-point and four-point self interaction terms.

${\mathcal {L}}_{H}=-{\frac {gm_{H}^{2}}{4m_{W}}}H^{3}-{\frac {g^{2}m_{H}^{2}}{32m_{W}^{2}}}H^{4}$

${\mathcal {L}}_{HV}$ contains the Higgs interactions with gauge vector bosons.

${\mathcal {L}}_{HV}=\left(gm_{W}H+{\frac {g^{2}}{4}}H^{2}\right)\left(W_{\mu }^{+}W^{-\mu }+{\frac {1}{2\cos ^{2}\theta _{W}}}Z_{\mu }Z^{\mu }\right)$

${\mathcal {L}}_{WWV}$ contains the gauge three-point self interactions.

${\mathcal {L}}_{WWV}=-ig[(W_{\mu \nu }^{+}W^{-\mu }-W^{+\mu }W_{\mu \nu }^{-})(A^{\nu }\sin \theta _{W}-Z^{\nu }\cos \theta _{W})+W_{\nu }^{-}W_{\mu }^{+}(A^{\mu \nu }\sin \theta _{W}-Z^{\mu \nu }\cos \theta _{W})]$

${\mathcal {L}}_{WWVV}$ contains the gauge four-point self interactions

${\begin{aligned}{\mathcal {L}}_{WWVV}=-{\frac {g^{2}}{4}}{\Big \{}&[2W_{\mu }^{+}W^{-\mu }+(A_{\mu }\sin \theta _{W}-Z_{\mu }\cos \theta _{W})^{2}]^{2}\\&-[W_{\mu }^{+}W_{\nu }^{-}+W_{\nu }^{+}W_{\mu }^{-}+(A_{\mu }\sin \theta _{W}-Z_{\mu }\cos \theta _{W})(A_{\nu }\sin \theta _{W}-Z_{\nu }\cos \theta _{W})]^{2}{\Big \}}\end{aligned}}$

and ${\mathcal {L}}_{Y}$ contains the Yukawa interactions between the fermions and the Higgs field.

${\mathcal {L}}_{Y}=-\sum _{f}{\frac {gm_{f}}{2m_{W}}}{\overline {f}}fH$

Note the ${\frac {1-\gamma ^{5}}{2}}$ factors in the weak couplings: these factors project out the left handed components of the spinor fields. This is why electroweak theory (after symmetry breaking) is commonly said to be a chiral theory.

See also

• Fundamental forces
• Formulation of the standard model
• Weinberg angle
• Unitarity gauge

References

General readers

• 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
  
  My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 Conveys much of the Standard Model with no formal mathematics. Very thorough on the weak interaction.

Texts

• 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
  
  My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
• 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
  
  My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
• 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
  
  My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534

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  In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang
  
  Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules
  
  Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.
  
  A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running
  
  The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more
  
  There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
• One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting
  
  In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang
  
  Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules
  
  Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.
  
  A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running
  
  The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more
  
  There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
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