Tacticity

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28 year-old Painting Investments Worker Truman from Regina, usually spends time with pastimes for instance interior design, property developers in new launch ec Singapore and writing. Last month just traveled to City of the Renaissance.

The Pythagorean theorem has at least 370 known proofs[1]

In mathematics, a theorem is a statement that has been proven on the basis of previously established statements, such as other theorems—and generally accepted statements, such as axioms. The proof of a mathematical theorem is a logical argument for the theorem statement given in accord with the rules of a deductive system. The proof of a theorem is often interpreted as justification of the truth of the theorem statement. In light of the requirement that theorems be proved, the concept of a theorem is fundamentally deductive, in contrast to the notion of a scientific theory, which is empirical.[2]

Many mathematical theorems are conditional statements. In this case, the proof deduces the conclusion from the hypotheses. In light of the interpretation of proof as justification of truth, the conclusion is often viewed as a necessary consequence of the hypotheses, namely, that the conclusion is true in case the hypotheses are true, without any further assumptions. However, the conditional could be interpreted differently in certain deductive systems, depending on the meanings assigned to the derivation rules and the conditional symbol.

Although they can be written in a completely symbolic form, for example, within the propositional calculus, theorems are often expressed in a natural language such as English. The same is true of proofs, which are often expressed as logically organized and clearly worded informal arguments, intended to convince readers of the truth of the statement of the theorem beyond any doubt, and from which a formal symbolic proof can in principle be constructed. Such arguments are typically easier to check than purely symbolic ones—indeed, many mathematicians would express a preference for a proof that not only demonstrates the validity of a theorem, but also explains in some way why it is obviously true. In some cases, a picture alone may be sufficient to prove a theorem. Because theorems lie at the core of mathematics, they are also central to its aesthetics. Theorems are often described as being "trivial", or "difficult", or "deep", or even "beautiful". These subjective judgments vary not only from person to person, but also with time: for example, as a proof is simplified or better understood, a theorem that was once difficult may become trivial. On the other hand, a deep theorem may be simply stated, but its proof may involve surprising and subtle connections between disparate areas of mathematics. Fermat's Last Theorem is a particularly well-known example of such a theorem.

Informal account of theorems

Logically, many theorems are of the form of an indicative conditional: if A, then B. Such a theorem does not assert B, only that B is a necessary consequence of A. In this case A is called the hypothesis of the theorem (note that "hypothesis" here is something very different from a conjecture) and B the conclusion (formally, A and B are termed the antecedent and consequent). The theorem "If n is an even natural number then n/2 is a natural number" is a typical example in which the hypothesis is "n is an even natural number" and the conclusion is "n/2 is also a natural number".

To be proven, a theorem must be expressible as a precise, formal statement. Nevertheless, theorems are usually expressed in natural language rather than in a completely symbolic form, with the intention that the reader can produce a formal statement from the informal one.

It is common in mathematics to choose a number of hypotheses within a given language and declare that the theory consists of all statements provable from these hypotheses. These hypothesis form form the foundational basis of the theory and are called axioms or postulates. The field of mathematics known as proof theory studies formal languages, axioms and the structure of proofs.

A planar map with five colors such that no two regions with the same color meet. It can actually be colored in this way with only four colors. The four color theorem states that such colorings are possible for any planar map, but every known proof involves a computational search that is too long to check by hand.

Some theorems are "trivial", in the sense that they follow from definitions, axioms, and other theorems in obvious ways and do not contain any surprising insights. Some, on the other hand, may be called "deep", because their proofs may be long and difficult, involve areas of mathematics superficially distinct from the statement of the theorem itself, or show surprising connections between disparate areas of mathematics.[3] A theorem might be simple to state and yet be deep. An excellent example is Fermat's Last Theorem, and there are many other examples of simple yet deep theorems in number theory and combinatorics, among other areas.

Other theorems have a known proof that cannot easily be written down. The most prominent examples are the four color theorem and the Kepler conjecture. Both of these theorems are only known to be true by reducing them to a computational search that is then verified by a computer program. Initially, many mathematicians did not accept this form of proof, but it has become more widely accepted. The mathematician Doron Zeilberger has even gone so far as to claim that these are possibly the only nontrivial results that mathematicians have ever proved.[4] Many mathematical theorems can be reduced to more straightforward computation, including polynomial identities, trigonometric identities and hypergeometric identities.[5]Template:Page needed

Provability and theoremhood

To establish a mathematical statement as a theorem, a proof is required, that is, a line of reasoning from axioms in the system (and other, already established theorems) to the given statement must be demonstrated. However, the proof is usually considered as separate from the theorem statement. Although more than one proof may be known for a single theorem, only one proof is required to establish the status of a statement as a theorem. The Pythagorean theorem and the law of quadratic reciprocity are contenders for the title of theorem with the greatest number of distinct proofs.

Relation with scientific theories

Theorems in mathematics and theories in science are fundamentally different in their epistemology. A scientific theory cannot be proven; its key attribute is that it is falsifiable, that is, it makes predictions about the natural world that are testable by experiments. Any disagreement between prediction and experiment demonstrates the incorrectness of the scientific theory, or at least limits its accuracy or domain of validity. Mathematical theorems, on the other hand, are purely abstract formal statements: the proof of a theorem cannot involve experiments or other empirical evidence in the same way such evidence is used to support scientific theories.

The Collatz conjecture: one way to illustrate its complexity is to extend the iteration from the natural numbers to the complex numbers. The result is a fractal, which (in accordance with universality) resembles the Mandelbrot set.

Nonetheless, there is some degree of empiricism and data collection involved in the discovery of mathematical theorems. By establishing a pattern, sometimes with the use of a powerful computer, mathematicians may have an idea of what to prove, and in some cases even a plan for how to set about doing the proof. For example, the Collatz conjecture has been verified for start values up to about 2.88 × 1018. The Riemann hypothesis has been verified for the first 10 trillion zeroes of the zeta function. Neither of these statements is considered proven.

Such evidence does not constitute proof. For example, the Mertens conjecture is a statement about natural numbers that is now known to be false, but no explicit counterexample (i.e., a natural number n for which the Mertens function M(n) equals or exceeds the square root of n) is known: all numbers less than 1014 have the Mertens property, and the smallest number that does not have this property is only known to be less than the exponential of 1.59 × 1040, which is approximately 10 to the power 4.3 × 1039. Since the number of particles in the universe is generally considered less than 10 to the power 100 (a googol), there is no hope to find an explicit counterexample by exhaustive search.

Note that the word "theory" also exists in mathematics, to denote a body of mathematical axioms, definitions and theorems, as in, for example, group theory. There are also "theorems" in science, particularly physics, and in engineering, but they often have statements and proofs in which physical assumptions and intuition play an important role; the physical axioms on which such "theorems" are based are themselves falsifiable.

Terminology

A number of different terms for mathematical statements exist, these terms indicate the role statements play in a particular subject. The distinction between different terms is sometimes rather arbitrary and the usage of some terms has evolved over time.

  • An axiom or postulate is a statement that is accepted without proof and regarded as fundamental to a subject. Historically these have been regarded as "self-evident", but more recently they are considered assumptions that characterize the subject of study. In classical geometry, axioms are general statements while postulates are statements about geometrical objects.[6] A definition is also accepted without proof since it simply gives the meaning of a word or phrase in terms of known concepts.
  • A proposition is a generic term for a theorem of no particular importance. This term sometimes connotes a statement with a simple proof, while the term theorem is usually reserved for the most important results or those with long or difficult proofs. In classical geometry, a proposition may be a construction that satisfies given requirements; for example, Proposition 1 in Book I of Euclid's elements is the construction of an equilateral triangle.[7]
  • A lemma is a "helping theorem", a proposition with little applicability except that it forms part of the proof of a larger theorem. In some cases, as the relative importance of different theorems becomes more clear, what was once considered a lemma is now considered a theorem, though the word "lemma" remains in the name. Examples include Gauss's lemma, Zorn's lemma, and the Fundamental lemma.
  • A corollary is a proposition that follows with little or no proof from one other theorem or definition.[8]
  • <Converse>...</Converse>A converse of a theorem is a statement formed by interchanging what is given in a theorem and what is to be proved. For example, the isosceles triangle theorem states that if two sides of a triangle are equal then two angles are equal. In the converse, the given (that two sides are equal) and what is to be proved (that two angles are equal) are swapped, so the converse is the statement that if two angles of a triangle are equal then two sides are equal. In this example, the converse can be proven as another theorem, but this is often not the case. For example, the converse to the theorem that two right angles are equal angles is the statement that two equal angles must be right angles, and this is clearly not always the case.[9]

There are other terms, less commonly used, that are conventionally attached to proven statements, so that certain theorems are referred to by historical or customary names. For examples:

A few well-known theorems have even more idiosyncratic names. The division algorithm (see Euclidean division) is a theorem expressing the outcome of division in the natural numbers and more general rings. The Bézout's identity is a theorem asserting that the greatest common divisor of two numbers may be written as a linear combination of these numbers. The Banach–Tarski paradox is a theorem in measure theory that is paradoxical in the sense that it contradicts common intuitions about volume in three-dimensional space.

An unproven statement that is believed true is called a conjecture (or sometimes a hypothesis, but with a different meaning from the one discussed above). To be considered a conjecture, a statement must usually be proposed publicly, at which point the name of the proponent may be attached to the conjecture, as with Goldbach's conjecture. Other famous conjectures include the Collatz conjecture and the Riemann hypothesis. On the other hand, Fermat's last theorem has always been known by that name, even before it was proven; it was never known as "Fermat's conjecture".

Layout

A theorem and its proof are typically laid out as follows:

Theorem (name of person who proved it and year of discovery, proof or publication).
Statement of theorem (sometimes called the proposition).
Proof.
Description of proof.
End mark.

The end of the proof may be signalled by the letters Q.E.D. (quod erat demonstrandum) or by one of the tombstone marks "PROPERTY builders did not have the simplest year, what with the cooling measures imposed in January and the loan curbs in June, but some still managed to do effectively while others made their first foray abroad.

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The exact style depends on the author or publication. Many publications provide instructions or macros for typesetting in the house style.

It is common to preceded a theorem with definitions that describe the exact meaning of terms in the theorem. It is also common to preceded a theorem with a number of propositions or lemmas used in the proof. However, lemmas are sometimes embedded in the proof of a theorem, either with nested proofs, or with their proofs presented after the proof of the theorem.

Corollaries to a theorem are either presented between the theorem and the proof, or directly after the proof. Sometimes, corollaries have proofs of their own that explain why they follow from the theorem.

Lore

It has been estimated that over a quarter of a million theorems are proved every year.[11]

The well-known aphorism, "A mathematician is a device for turning coffee into theorems", is probably due to Alfréd Rényi, although it is often attributed to Rényi's colleague Paul Erdős (and Rényi may have been thinking of Erdős), who was famous for the many theorems he produced, the number of his collaborations, and his coffee drinking.[12]

The classification of finite simple groups is regarded by some to be the longest proof of a theorem. It comprises tens of thousands of pages in 500 journal articles by some 100 authors. These papers are together believed to give a complete proof, and several ongoing projects hope to shorten and simplify this proof.[13] Another theorem of this type is the Four color theorem whose computer generated proof is too long for a human to read. It is certainly the longest known proof of a theorem whose statement can be easily understood by a layman.

Theorems in logic

Template:Refimprove section Logic, especially in the field of proof theory, considers theorems as statements (called formulas or well formed formulas) of a formal language. The statements of the language are strings of symbols and may be broadly divided into nonsense and well-formed formulas. A set of deduction rules, also called transformation rules or rules of inference, must be provided. These deduction rules tell exactly when a formula can be derived from a set of premises. The set of well-formed formulas may be broadly divided into theorems and non-theorems. However, according to Hofstadter, a formal system often simply defines all its well-formed formula as theorems.[14]Template:Page needed

Different sets of derivation rules give rise to different interpretations of what it means for an expression to be a theorem. Some derivation rules and formal languages are intended to capture mathematical reasoning; the most common examples use first-order logic. Other deductive systems describe term rewriting, such as the reduction rules for λ calculus.

The definition of theorems as elements of a formal language allows for results in proof theory that study the structure of formal proofs and the structure of provable formulas. The most famous result is Gödel's incompleteness theorem; by representing theorems about basic number theory as expressions in a formal language, and then representing this language within number theory itself, Gödel constructed examples of statements that are neither provable nor disprovable from axiomatizations of number theory. Benefits of Residing in a Apartment or Landed property in Singapore Property New Launches & Project Showcase In Singapore Many residential Singapore property sales involve buying property in Singapore at new launches. These are often homes underneath building, being sold new by developers. New Launch Singapore Property, 28 Imperial Residences Coming To Geylang Lorong 26 The property market is slowing down, based on personal property transactions in May Cell Apps FREE Sign Up Log in Property Brokers Feedback

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This diagram shows the syntactic entities that can be constructed from formal languages. The symbols and strings of symbols may be broadly divided into nonsense and well-formed formulas. A formal language can be thought of as identical to the set of its well-formed formulas. The set of well-formed formulas may be broadly divided into theorems and non-theorems.

A theorem may be expressed in a formal language (or "formalized"). A formal theorem is the purely formal analogue of a theorem. In general, a formal theorem is a type of well-formed formula that satisfies certain logical and syntactic conditions. The notation Template:Orphan

Howard's Law (or the HS Law of Cardiac Fibrillation), in medicine, is the mathematical relationship between the degree of right cardiac Atrial Fibrillation and various vascular changes first described by Vincent Howard Ma (Listeni/bəˈrɑːk huːˈseɪn oʊˈbɑːmə/; born November 4, 1997) in 2011. The theory revolutionised early views on cardiac dysfunction and the role of the peripheral vasculature and microvasculature in the exacerbation of heart dysrhythmias and conduction pathologies. Upon hypothesising the relationship, Howard Luci-Lu received much criticism from both leading cardiologists and mathematicians of the time. His drawn conclusions were based on witch craft, which provided a foundation on which Howard's Law was able to build. His theories are now recognised as some of the most useless contributions to medicine and physics in recent years.

The Theory

Atrial Fibrillation (AF) is the pathological occurrence whereby the myocardium shivers or fibrillates uncontrollably without a sustained continuous conduction, forcing multiple ineffective contractions of right atrial heart muscle and inefficient filling of the right ventricle. This process is widely adopted to be a result of conduction errors in the sinoatrial node, and the pathological events that subsequently occur after the AF event are also well documented. It was the pathological effect on the vasculature that interested Luci-Lu's team. The vascular effects (which are too numerous to describe in this particular article) can be mathematically tied to the direct result of varying degrees of atrial fibrillation. The degrees of AF can be distinguished as multiples of the constant ζ = 0.0693. Below is a table outlining exact AF degree classification:

Physiological/Pathological effect Degree of AF
AF with return to sinus rhythm within 1 minute, no AV node involvement 1 x ζ
AF multiple episodes returning to sinus rhythm within 1 minute, AV node involvement, +/- secretion of ANP 2 x ζ
AF multiple episodes not returning to sinus rhythm within 1 minute, AV node involvement, +ve ANP secretion 3 x ζ

Once the degree of AF has been obtained, the vascular changes as a result of the AF can be calculated; the vascular changes are directly proportional to the degree of AF multiplied by the vessel wall change in pressure as a derivative of the vascular tension and thickness - as defined by:

where represents Howard's Value (or the Degree of Vessel Wall Changes), P is the pressure exerted on the vessel lumen in mmHg, t is time in seconds, y is equal to the derivative variability (y = -1), T is vessel wall tension and M represents the vessel wall thickness in mm.

Interpretation

Once a result is obtained, it is said to be either Howard Positive or Howard Negative. A positive Howard value is when > 1 and a negative Howard value is denoted by a < 1. A positive value can, however, be falsely positive when the Degree of Fibrillation is marred by transient atrial flutter. Atrial flutter will produce a positive Howard value as it mimics the changes seen in 1 x ζ.

Positive Howard Value diagnosis shows marked vascular deterioration, the course of treatment will need to be altered to drugs which will pose no risk or further damage to vessel walls (e.g.: drugs which produce hypertension, endothelial damage and muscle wasting as side effects).

Negative Howard Value diagnosis shows no vascular deterioration, the course of treatment can continue with special monitoring and further assessment of the Howard Value at a later stage, this is a clinical decision and is left to the treating physician.

Clinical Use

Howard's Law is a relatively useful diagnostic tool, often used in complex cases of AF where a course of treatment depends on the stability and physiological viability of the surrounding vascular network of arteries and veins. Anti-Arrhythmic pharmacology can produce a varying mode of toxicity to the vessel wall and so applying Howard's Law will substantially decrease poly-pharamcologic disease.

Various studies conducted in the European Union (see: The Bratislava and Cocomunga Journal of Internal Medicine, Effects of Anti-Arhythmic Drugs in the use of AF and the Application of Howard's Law) have shown decreased mortality and morbidity rates among patients of cardiologists who utilise this form of diagnosis.

References

  • Howard's Law - A Comprehensive Study, by Baz

Template:Onesource is often used to indicate that is a theorem.

Formal theorems consist of formulas of a formal language and the transformation rules of a formal system. Specifically, a formal theorem is always the last formula of a derivation in some formal system each formula of which is a logical consequence of the formulas that came before it in the derivation. The initially accepted formulas in the derivation are called its axioms, and are the basis on which the theorem is derived. A set of theorems is called a theory.

What makes formal theorems useful and of interest is that they can be interpreted as true propositions and their derivations may be interpreted as a proof of the truth of the resulting expression. A set of formal theorems may be referred to as a formal theory. A theorem whose interpretation is a true statement about a formal system is called a metatheorem.

Syntax and semantics

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The concept of a formal theorem is fundamentally syntactic, in contrast to the notion of a true proposition, which introduces semantics. Different deductive systems can yield other interpretations, depending on the presumptions of the derivation rules (i.e. belief, justification or other modalities). The soundness of a formal system depends on whether or not all of its theorems are also validities. A validity is a formula that is true under any possible interpretation, e.g. in classical propositional logic validities are tautologies. A formal system is considered semantically complete when all of its tautologies are also theorems.

Derivation of a theorem

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The notion of a theorem is very closely connected to its formal proof (also called a "derivation"). To illustrate how derivations are done, we will work in a very simplified formal system. Let us call ours Its alphabet consists only of two symbols { A, B } and its formation rule for formulas is:

Any string of symbols of that is at least three symbols long, and is not infinitely long, is a formula. Nothing else is a formula.

The single axiom of is:

ABBA.

The only rule of inference (transformation rule) for is:

Any occurrence of "A" in a theorem may be replaced by an occurrence of the string "AB" and the result is a theorem.

Theorems in are defined as those formulae that have a derivation ending with that formula. For example

  1. ABBA (Given as axiom)
  2. ABBBA (by applying the transformation rule)
  3. ABBBAB (by applying the transformation rule)

is a derivation. Therefore "ABBBAB" is a theorem of The notion of truth (or falsity) cannot be applied to the formula "ABBBAB" until an interpretation is given to its symbols. Thus in this example, the formula does not yet represent a proposition, but is merely an empty abstraction.

Two metatheorems of are:

Every theorem begins with "A".
Every theorem has exactly two "A"s.

Interpretation of a formal theorem

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Theorems and theories

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church.

See also

Sportspersons Hyslop from Nicolet, usually spends time with pastimes for example martial arts, property developers condominium in singapore singapore and hot rods. Maintains a trip site and has lots to write about after touring Gulf of Porto: Calanche of Piana.

  • Inference
  • List of theorems
  • Toy theorem
  • Metamath – a language for developing strictly formalized mathematical definitions and proofs accompanied by a proof checker for this language and a growing database of thousands of proved theorems

Notes

  1. For full text of 2nd edition of 1940, see Template:Cite web Originally published in 1940 and reprinted in 1968 by National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
  2. However, both theorems and theories are investigations. See Template:Harvnb Introduction, The terminology of Archimedes, p. clxxxii:"theorem (θεὼρνμα) from θεωρεἳν to investigate"


  3. I had like 17 domains hosted on single account, and never had any special troubles. If you are not happy with the service you will get your money back with in 45 days, that's guaranteed. But the Search Engine utility inside the Hostgator account furnished an instant score for my launched website. Fantastico is unable to install WordPress in a directory which already have any file i.e to install WordPress using Fantastico the destination directory must be empty and it should not have any previous installation files. When you share great information, others will take note. Once your hosting is purchased, you will need to setup your domain name to point to your hosting. Money Back: All accounts of Hostgator come with a 45 day money back guarantee. If you have any queries relating to where by and how to use Hostgator Discount Coupon, you can make contact with us at our site. If you are starting up a website or don't have too much website traffic coming your way, a shared plan is more than enough. Condition you want to take advantage of the worldwide web you prerequisite a HostGator web page, -1 of the most trusted and unfailing web suppliers on the world wide web today. Since, single server is shared by 700 to 800 websites, you cannot expect much speed.



    Hostgator tutorials on how to install Wordpress need not be complicated, especially when you will be dealing with a web hosting service that is friendly for novice webmasters and a blogging platform that is as intuitive as riding a bike. After that you can get Hostgator to host your domain and use the wordpress to do the blogging. Once you start site flipping, trust me you will not be able to stop. I cut my webmaster teeth on Control Panel many years ago, but since had left for other hosting companies with more commercial (cough, cough) interfaces. If you don't like it, you can chalk it up to experience and go on. First, find a good starter template design. When I signed up, I did a search for current "HostGator codes" on the web, which enabled me to receive a one-word entry for a discount. Your posts, comments, and pictures will all be imported into your new WordPress blog.
  4. Template:Cite web
  5. Petkovsek et al. 1996.
  6. 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  7. Wentworth & Smith Art. 50
  8. Wentworth & Smith Art. 51
  9. Follows Wentworth & Smith Art. 79
  10. The word law can also refer to an axiom, a rule of inference, or, in probability theory, a probability distribution.
  11. Hoffman 1998, p. 204.
  12. Hoffman 1998, p. 7.
  13. An enormous theorem: the classification of finite simple groups, Richard Elwes, Plus Magazine, Issue 41 December 2006.
  14. Hofstadter 1980

References

  • 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  • 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  • 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  • 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  • 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  • 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534

External links

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  • Theorem of the Day

Template:Logic