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'''Operational calculus''', also known as '''operational analysis''', is a technique by which problems in [[analysis]], in particular [[differential equation]]s, are transformed into algebraic problems, usually the problem of solving a [[polynomial equation]]. 
 
==History==
 
The idea of representing the processes of calculus, derivation and integration, as operators
has a long history that goes back to [[Gottfried Leibniz]]. The mathematician [[Louis François Antoine Arbogast]] was one of the first to manipulate these symbols independently of the function to which they were applied.
This approach was further developed by Servois who developed convenient notations. Servois was followed
by a school of British mathematicians including  Heargrave, Boole, Bownin, Carmichael, Doukin, Graves, Murphy, [[William Spottiswoode]] and Sylvester.
Treatises describing the application of operator methods to ordinary and partial differential equations  were written by [[George Boole]] in 1859 and by [[Robert Bell Carmichael]] in 1855.
This technique was fully developed by the physicist [[Oliver Heaviside]] in 1893, in connection with his work on electromagnetism. At the time, Heaviside's methods were not rigorous, and
his work was not further developed by mathematicians.
Operational calculus first found applications in electrical engineering problems, for
the calculation of transients in [[linear circuits]] after 1910, under the impulse of [[Ernst Julius Berg]], [[John Renshaw Carson]] and [[Vannevar Bush]].
A rigorous mathematical justification of Heaviside's operational methods came only 
after the work of [[Thomas John I'Anson Bromwich|Bromwich]] that related operational calculus with
[[Laplace transform]]ation methods (see the books by Jeffreys, by Carslaw or by MacLachlan for a detailed exposition).
Other ways of justifying the operational methods of Heaviside were introduced in the mid-1920s using
[[integral equation]] techniques (as done by Carson) or [[Fourier transform]]ation (as done by [[Norbert Wiener]]). 
 
A different approach to operational calculus was developed in the 1930s by Polish mathematician
[[Jan Mikusiński]], using algebraic reasoning.
 
==Principle==
The key element of the operational calculus is to consider differentiation as an [[Operator (mathematics)|operator]]    ''p'' = <sup>''d''</sup>&frasl;<sub>''dt''</sub>  acting on functions.
Linear differential equations can then be recast in the form of "functions" {{math|''F(p)''}} of the operator {{mvar|p}}
acting on the unknown function equals the known function. Here, {{math|''F''}} is defining something that takes in an operator {{mvar|p}} and spits out another operator {{math|''F(p)''}}.  
Solutions are then obtained by making the
inverse operator of {{mvar|F}} act on the known function.
 
In electrical circuit theory, one is trying to determine the response of an electrical circuit to an impulse. Due to linearity, it is enough to consider a unit step, i. e. the Heaviside function {{math|''H(t)''}}  such that ''H(t<0)''=0 and ''H(t>0)=1''.
 
The simplest example of application of the operational calculus is to solve: {{math| ''py''{{=}}''H(t)''}}, which gives
 
:<math> y=p^{-1} H = \int_0^t H(u) du= t H(t) .</math>
 
From this example, one sees that <math> p^{-1}</math> represents integration, and <math>p^{-n}</math>
represents {{mvar|n}}  iterated integrations. In particular, one has that
:<math>p^{-n} H(t)=\frac{t^n}{n!} H(t).</math>
 
It is then possible to make sense of
:<math>\frac{p}{p-a}H(t)=\frac{1}{1-\frac{a}{p}}H(t)</math>
by using a geometric series expansion,
:<math>\frac{1}{1-\frac{a}{p}}H(t)=\sum_{n=0}^\infty a^n p^{-n} H(t)=\sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{a^n t^n}{n!} H(t)=e^{at} H(t)  .</math>
Using [[partial fraction]] decomposition, it becomes  possible to define any fraction in the operator {{mvar|p}} and compute its action on {{math|''H(t)''}} .  
Moreover, if the function 1/''F(p)'' has a series expansion of the form
:<math>\frac{1}{F(p)}=\sum_{n=0}^\infty a_n p^{-n}</math>,
it is straightforward to find
 
:<math>\frac{1}{F(p)}H(t)=\sum_{n=0}^\infty a_n \frac{t^n}{n!} H(t) .</math>
Applying this rule, solving any linear differential equation is reduced to a purely algebraic problem.
 
Heaviside went farther, and defined fractional power of {{mvar|p}}, thus establishing a connection
between operational calculus and [[fractional calculus]].
Using the [[Taylor expansion]], one can also verify the Lagrange-Boole [[Shift operator|translation formula]],  {{math|''e''<sup>''ap''</sup>  ''f(t)'' {{=}} ''f(t+a)''}}, so the operational
calculus is also applicable to finite [[difference equation]]s and to electrical engineering problems with delayed signals.
 
==References==
 
*LF Arbogast  [http://books.google.com/books?id=ugQAAAAAMAAJ&dq=arbogast&as_brr=1 Du calcul des dérivations] (Levrault, Strasbourg, 1800).
 
*Servois [http://www.numdam.org/item?id=AMPA_1814-1815__5__93_0 Annales de Gergonne] '''5''', 93 (1814).
 
*Terquem and Gerono, Nouvelles Annales de Mathematiques: journal des candidats aux écoles polytechnique et normale '''14''', 83 (1855) [Some historical references on the precursor work till Carmichael].
 
*G Boole [http://gallica.bnf.fr/document?O=N099509  A treatise on differential equations] Chapters 16 and 17 (Mc Millan, 1859).
 
*RB Carmichael [http://books.google.com/books?id=f1ADAAAAQAAJ&dq=Carmichael&as_brr=1  A treatise on the calculus of operations] (Longman, 1855).
*O Heaviside [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb37572031d/date  Proc. Roy. Soc. (London)] '''52'''. 504-529 (1893), '''54''' 105-143 (1894). [Original articles]
 
*JR Carson [http://projecteuclid.org/euclid.bams/1183486854 Bull. Amer. Math. Soc.] '''32''', 43 (1926).
 
*JR Carson [http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/cgi-bin/DBscripts/allmetainfor_test.cgi?barcode=3371 Electric Circuit Theory and the Operational Calculus] (Mc Graw Hill, 1926).
 
*N Wiener [http://www.digizeitschriften.de/resolveppn/GDZPPN002270854 Math. Ann.] '''95''', 557 (1926).
 
*H Jeffreys [http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/cgi-bin/DBscripts/allmetainfo_test.cgi?barcode=73746 Operational Methods In Mathematical Physics] (Cambridge University Press, 1927). also at [http://www.archive.org/details/operationalmetho029814mbp  Internet Archive]
 
*HW March  [http://projecteuclid.org/euclid.bams/1183492106 Bull. Amer. Math. Soc.] '''33''', 311 (1927), '''33''', 492 (1927). 
 
*EJ Berg [http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/cgi-bin/DBscripts/allmetainfor_test.cgi?barcode=3371 Heaviside's Operational Calculus] (McGrawHill, 1929).
 
*V Bush Operational Circuit analysis (J. Wiley & Sons, 1929). with an appendix by N. Wiener.
 
*HT Davis [http://www.archive.org/details/theoryoflinearop033341mbp  The theory of linear operators] (Principia Press, Bloomington, 1936).
 
*NW Mc Lachlan [http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/cgi-bin/DBscripts/allmetainfo_test.cgi?barcode=42240  Modern operational calculus] (Macmillan, 1941).
 
*[[Horatio Scott Carslaw|HS Carslaw]]  [http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/cgi-bin/DBscripts/allmetainfo_test.cgi?barcode=2962 Operational Methods in Applied Mathematics] (Oxford University Press, 1941).
 
*B van der Pol, H Bremmer Operational calculus (Cambridge University Press, 1950)
 
*RV Churchill Operational Mathematics (McGraw-Hill, 1958).
 
*J Mikusinski Operational Calculus (Elsevier, Netherlands, 1960).
 
*{{cite doi|10.1016/0022-247X(73)90172-8|noedit}}
 
==External links==
*IV Lindell [http://ceta.mit.edu/PIER/pier26/11.9909172jp.Lindell.pdf HEAVISIDE OPERATIONAL RULES APPLICABLE TO ELECTROMAGNETIC PROBLEMS]
* Ron Doerfler [http://myreckonings.com/wordpress/2007/12/07/heavisides-operator-calculus/ Heaviside's Calculus]
 
[[Category:Calculus]]

Revision as of 15:29, 5 April 2013

Operational calculus, also known as operational analysis, is a technique by which problems in analysis, in particular differential equations, are transformed into algebraic problems, usually the problem of solving a polynomial equation.

History

The idea of representing the processes of calculus, derivation and integration, as operators has a long history that goes back to Gottfried Leibniz. The mathematician Louis François Antoine Arbogast was one of the first to manipulate these symbols independently of the function to which they were applied. This approach was further developed by Servois who developed convenient notations. Servois was followed by a school of British mathematicians including Heargrave, Boole, Bownin, Carmichael, Doukin, Graves, Murphy, William Spottiswoode and Sylvester. Treatises describing the application of operator methods to ordinary and partial differential equations were written by George Boole in 1859 and by Robert Bell Carmichael in 1855. This technique was fully developed by the physicist Oliver Heaviside in 1893, in connection with his work on electromagnetism. At the time, Heaviside's methods were not rigorous, and his work was not further developed by mathematicians. Operational calculus first found applications in electrical engineering problems, for the calculation of transients in linear circuits after 1910, under the impulse of Ernst Julius Berg, John Renshaw Carson and Vannevar Bush. A rigorous mathematical justification of Heaviside's operational methods came only after the work of Bromwich that related operational calculus with Laplace transformation methods (see the books by Jeffreys, by Carslaw or by MacLachlan for a detailed exposition). Other ways of justifying the operational methods of Heaviside were introduced in the mid-1920s using integral equation techniques (as done by Carson) or Fourier transformation (as done by Norbert Wiener).

A different approach to operational calculus was developed in the 1930s by Polish mathematician Jan Mikusiński, using algebraic reasoning.

Principle

The key element of the operational calculus is to consider differentiation as an operator p = ddt acting on functions. Linear differential equations can then be recast in the form of "functions" Buying, selling and renting HDB and personal residential properties in Singapore are simple and transparent transactions. Although you are not required to engage a real property salesperson (generally often known as a "public listed property developers In singapore agent") to complete these property transactions, chances are you'll think about partaking one if you are not accustomed to the processes concerned.

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This feature is suitable for you who need to get the tax deductions out of your PIC scheme to your property agency firm. It's endorsed that you visit the correct site for filling this tax return software. This utility must be submitted at the very least yearly to report your whole tax and tax return that you're going to receive in the current accounting 12 months. There may be an official website for this tax filling procedure. Filling this tax return software shouldn't be a tough thing to do for all business homeowners in Singapore.

A wholly owned subsidiary of SLP Worldwide, SLP Realty houses 900 associates to service SLP's fast rising portfolio of residential tasks. Real estate is a human-centric trade. Apart from offering comprehensive coaching applications for our associates, SLP Realty puts equal emphasis on creating human capabilities and creating sturdy teamwork throughout all ranges of our organisational hierarchy. Worldwide Presence At SLP International, our staff of execs is pushed to make sure our shoppers meet their enterprise and investment targets. Under is an inventory of some notable shoppers from completely different industries and markets, who've entrusted their real estate must the expertise of SLP Worldwide.

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Another method by way of which you could find out whether the agent is sweet is by checking the feedback, of the shoppers, on the website. There are various individuals would publish their comments on the web site of the Singapore property agent. You can take a look at these feedback and the see whether it will be clever to hire that specific Singapore property agent. You may even get in contact with the developer immediately. Many Singapore property brokers know the developers and you may confirm the goodwill of the agent by asking the developer. is defining something that takes in an operator Template:Mvar and spits out another operator Buying, selling and renting HDB and personal residential properties in Singapore are simple and transparent transactions. Although you are not required to engage a real property salesperson (generally often known as a "public listed property developers In singapore agent") to complete these property transactions, chances are you'll think about partaking one if you are not accustomed to the processes concerned.

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A wholly owned subsidiary of SLP Worldwide, SLP Realty houses 900 associates to service SLP's fast rising portfolio of residential tasks. Real estate is a human-centric trade. Apart from offering comprehensive coaching applications for our associates, SLP Realty puts equal emphasis on creating human capabilities and creating sturdy teamwork throughout all ranges of our organisational hierarchy. Worldwide Presence At SLP International, our staff of execs is pushed to make sure our shoppers meet their enterprise and investment targets. Under is an inventory of some notable shoppers from completely different industries and markets, who've entrusted their real estate must the expertise of SLP Worldwide.

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In electrical circuit theory, one is trying to determine the response of an electrical circuit to an impulse. Due to linearity, it is enough to consider a unit step, i. e. the Heaviside function Buying, selling and renting HDB and personal residential properties in Singapore are simple and transparent transactions. Although you are not required to engage a real property salesperson (generally often known as a "public listed property developers In singapore agent") to complete these property transactions, chances are you'll think about partaking one if you are not accustomed to the processes concerned.

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The simplest example of application of the operational calculus is to solve: Buying, selling and renting HDB and personal residential properties in Singapore are simple and transparent transactions. Although you are not required to engage a real property salesperson (generally often known as a "public listed property developers In singapore agent") to complete these property transactions, chances are you'll think about partaking one if you are not accustomed to the processes concerned.

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This feature is suitable for you who need to get the tax deductions out of your PIC scheme to your property agency firm. It's endorsed that you visit the correct site for filling this tax return software. This utility must be submitted at the very least yearly to report your whole tax and tax return that you're going to receive in the current accounting 12 months. There may be an official website for this tax filling procedure. Filling this tax return software shouldn't be a tough thing to do for all business homeowners in Singapore.

A wholly owned subsidiary of SLP Worldwide, SLP Realty houses 900 associates to service SLP's fast rising portfolio of residential tasks. Real estate is a human-centric trade. Apart from offering comprehensive coaching applications for our associates, SLP Realty puts equal emphasis on creating human capabilities and creating sturdy teamwork throughout all ranges of our organisational hierarchy. Worldwide Presence At SLP International, our staff of execs is pushed to make sure our shoppers meet their enterprise and investment targets. Under is an inventory of some notable shoppers from completely different industries and markets, who've entrusted their real estate must the expertise of SLP Worldwide.

If you're looking for a real estate or Singapore property agent online, you merely need to belief your instinct. It is because you don't know which agent is sweet and which agent will not be. Carry out research on a number of brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you find yourself certain that a selected agent is dependable and trustworthy, you'll be able to choose to utilize his partnerise find you a house in Singapore. More often than not, a property agent is considered to be good if she or he places the contact data on his web site. This is able to imply that the agent does not thoughts you calling them and asking them any questions regarding properties in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them of their office after taking an appointment.

Another method by way of which you could find out whether the agent is sweet is by checking the feedback, of the shoppers, on the website. There are various individuals would publish their comments on the web site of the Singapore property agent. You can take a look at these feedback and the see whether it will be clever to hire that specific Singapore property agent. You may even get in contact with the developer immediately. Many Singapore property brokers know the developers and you may confirm the goodwill of the agent by asking the developer., which gives

From this example, one sees that represents integration, and represents Template:Mvar iterated integrations. In particular, one has that

It is then possible to make sense of

by using a geometric series expansion,

Using partial fraction decomposition, it becomes possible to define any fraction in the operator Template:Mvar and compute its action on Buying, selling and renting HDB and personal residential properties in Singapore are simple and transparent transactions. Although you are not required to engage a real property salesperson (generally often known as a "public listed property developers In singapore agent") to complete these property transactions, chances are you'll think about partaking one if you are not accustomed to the processes concerned.

Professional agents are readily available once you need to discover an condominium for hire in singapore In some cases, landlords will take into account you more favourably in case your agent comes to them than for those who tried to method them by yourself. You need to be careful, nevertheless, as you resolve in your agent. Ensure that the agent you are contemplating working with is registered with the IEA – Institute of Estate Brokers. Whereas it might sound a hassle to you, will probably be worth it in the end. The IEA works by an ordinary algorithm and regulations, so you'll protect yourself in opposition to probably going with a rogue agent who prices you more than they should for his or her service in finding you an residence for lease in singapore.

There isn't any deal too small. Property agents who are keen to find time for any deal even if the commission is small are the ones you want on your aspect. Additionally they present humbleness and might relate with the typical Singaporean higher. Relentlessly pursuing any deal, calling prospects even without being prompted. Even if they get rejected a hundred times, they still come again for more. These are the property brokers who will find consumers what they need eventually, and who would be the most successful in what they do. 4. Honesty and Integrity

This feature is suitable for you who need to get the tax deductions out of your PIC scheme to your property agency firm. It's endorsed that you visit the correct site for filling this tax return software. This utility must be submitted at the very least yearly to report your whole tax and tax return that you're going to receive in the current accounting 12 months. There may be an official website for this tax filling procedure. Filling this tax return software shouldn't be a tough thing to do for all business homeowners in Singapore.

A wholly owned subsidiary of SLP Worldwide, SLP Realty houses 900 associates to service SLP's fast rising portfolio of residential tasks. Real estate is a human-centric trade. Apart from offering comprehensive coaching applications for our associates, SLP Realty puts equal emphasis on creating human capabilities and creating sturdy teamwork throughout all ranges of our organisational hierarchy. Worldwide Presence At SLP International, our staff of execs is pushed to make sure our shoppers meet their enterprise and investment targets. Under is an inventory of some notable shoppers from completely different industries and markets, who've entrusted their real estate must the expertise of SLP Worldwide.

If you're looking for a real estate or Singapore property agent online, you merely need to belief your instinct. It is because you don't know which agent is sweet and which agent will not be. Carry out research on a number of brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you find yourself certain that a selected agent is dependable and trustworthy, you'll be able to choose to utilize his partnerise find you a house in Singapore. More often than not, a property agent is considered to be good if she or he places the contact data on his web site. This is able to imply that the agent does not thoughts you calling them and asking them any questions regarding properties in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them of their office after taking an appointment.

Another method by way of which you could find out whether the agent is sweet is by checking the feedback, of the shoppers, on the website. There are various individuals would publish their comments on the web site of the Singapore property agent. You can take a look at these feedback and the see whether it will be clever to hire that specific Singapore property agent. You may even get in contact with the developer immediately. Many Singapore property brokers know the developers and you may confirm the goodwill of the agent by asking the developer. . Moreover, if the function 1/F(p) has a series expansion of the form

,

it is straightforward to find

Applying this rule, solving any linear differential equation is reduced to a purely algebraic problem.

Heaviside went farther, and defined fractional power of Template:Mvar, thus establishing a connection between operational calculus and fractional calculus.

Using the Taylor expansion, one can also verify the Lagrange-Boole translation formula, Buying, selling and renting HDB and personal residential properties in Singapore are simple and transparent transactions. Although you are not required to engage a real property salesperson (generally often known as a "public listed property developers In singapore agent") to complete these property transactions, chances are you'll think about partaking one if you are not accustomed to the processes concerned.

Professional agents are readily available once you need to discover an condominium for hire in singapore In some cases, landlords will take into account you more favourably in case your agent comes to them than for those who tried to method them by yourself. You need to be careful, nevertheless, as you resolve in your agent. Ensure that the agent you are contemplating working with is registered with the IEA – Institute of Estate Brokers. Whereas it might sound a hassle to you, will probably be worth it in the end. The IEA works by an ordinary algorithm and regulations, so you'll protect yourself in opposition to probably going with a rogue agent who prices you more than they should for his or her service in finding you an residence for lease in singapore.

There isn't any deal too small. Property agents who are keen to find time for any deal even if the commission is small are the ones you want on your aspect. Additionally they present humbleness and might relate with the typical Singaporean higher. Relentlessly pursuing any deal, calling prospects even without being prompted. Even if they get rejected a hundred times, they still come again for more. These are the property brokers who will find consumers what they need eventually, and who would be the most successful in what they do. 4. Honesty and Integrity

This feature is suitable for you who need to get the tax deductions out of your PIC scheme to your property agency firm. It's endorsed that you visit the correct site for filling this tax return software. This utility must be submitted at the very least yearly to report your whole tax and tax return that you're going to receive in the current accounting 12 months. There may be an official website for this tax filling procedure. Filling this tax return software shouldn't be a tough thing to do for all business homeowners in Singapore.

A wholly owned subsidiary of SLP Worldwide, SLP Realty houses 900 associates to service SLP's fast rising portfolio of residential tasks. Real estate is a human-centric trade. Apart from offering comprehensive coaching applications for our associates, SLP Realty puts equal emphasis on creating human capabilities and creating sturdy teamwork throughout all ranges of our organisational hierarchy. Worldwide Presence At SLP International, our staff of execs is pushed to make sure our shoppers meet their enterprise and investment targets. Under is an inventory of some notable shoppers from completely different industries and markets, who've entrusted their real estate must the expertise of SLP Worldwide.

If you're looking for a real estate or Singapore property agent online, you merely need to belief your instinct. It is because you don't know which agent is sweet and which agent will not be. Carry out research on a number of brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you find yourself certain that a selected agent is dependable and trustworthy, you'll be able to choose to utilize his partnerise find you a house in Singapore. More often than not, a property agent is considered to be good if she or he places the contact data on his web site. This is able to imply that the agent does not thoughts you calling them and asking them any questions regarding properties in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them of their office after taking an appointment.

Another method by way of which you could find out whether the agent is sweet is by checking the feedback, of the shoppers, on the website. There are various individuals would publish their comments on the web site of the Singapore property agent. You can take a look at these feedback and the see whether it will be clever to hire that specific Singapore property agent. You may even get in contact with the developer immediately. Many Singapore property brokers know the developers and you may confirm the goodwill of the agent by asking the developer., so the operational calculus is also applicable to finite difference equations and to electrical engineering problems with delayed signals.

References

  • Terquem and Gerono, Nouvelles Annales de Mathematiques: journal des candidats aux écoles polytechnique et normale 14, 83 (1855) [Some historical references on the precursor work till Carmichael].
  • V Bush Operational Circuit analysis (J. Wiley & Sons, 1929). with an appendix by N. Wiener.
  • B van der Pol, H Bremmer Operational calculus (Cambridge University Press, 1950)
  • RV Churchill Operational Mathematics (McGraw-Hill, 1958).
  • J Mikusinski Operational Calculus (Elsevier, Netherlands, 1960).

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