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In mathematics, a confluent hypergeometric function is a solution of a confluent hypergeometric equation, which is a degenerate form of a hypergeometric differential equation where two of the three regular singularities merge into an irregular singularity. (The term "confluent" refers to the merging of singular points of families of differential equations; "confluere" is Latin for "to flow together".) There are several common standard forms of confluent hypergeometric functions:

• Kummer's (confluent hypergeometric) function M(a,b,z), introduced by Template:Harvs, is a solution to Kummer's differential equation. There is a different and unrelated Kummer's function bearing the same name.
• Tricomi's (confluent hypergeometric) function U(a;b;z) introduced by Template:Harvs, sometimes denoted by Ψ(a;b;.z), is another solution to Kummer's equation.
• Whittaker functions (for Edmund Taylor Whittaker) are solutions to Whittaker's equation.
• Coulomb wave functions are solutions to the Coulomb wave equation.

The Kummer functions, Whittaker functions, and Coulomb wave functions are essentially the same, and differ from each other only by elementary functions and change of variables.

Kummer's equation

Kummer's equation is

$z{\frac {d^{2}w}{dz^{2}}}+(b-z){\frac {dw}{dz}}-aw=0$,

with a regular singular point at 0 and an irregular singular point at ∞. It has two (usually) linearly independent solutions M(a,b,z) and U(a,b,z).

Kummer's function (of the first kind) M is a generalized hypergeometric series introduced in Template:Harv, given by

$M(a,b,z)=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {a^{(n)}z^{n}}{b^{(n)}n!}}={}_{1}F_{1}(a;b;z)$

where

$a^{(0)}=1,$

$a^{(n)}=a(a+1)(a+2)\cdots (a+n-1)\,$

is the rising factorial. Another common notation for this solution is Φ(a,b,z). Considered as a function of a, b, or z with the other two held constant, this defines an entire function of a or z, except when b = 0, −1, − 2, ... As a function of b it is analytic except for poles at the non-positive integers.

Some values of a and b yield solutions that can be expressed in terms of other known functions. See #Special cases. When a is a non-positive integer then Kummer's function (if it is defined) is a (generalized) Laguerre polynomial.

Just as the confluent differential equation is a limit of the hypergeometric differential equation as the singular point at 1 is moved towards the singular point at ∞, the confluent hypergeometric function can be given as a limit of the hypergeometric function

$M(a,c,z)=\lim _{b\rightarrow \infty }{}_{2}F_{1}(a,b;c;z/b)$

and many of the properties of the confluent hypergeometric function are limiting cases of properties of the hypergeometric function.

Since Kummer's equation is second order there must be another, independent, solution. For this we can usually use the Tricomi confluent hypergeometric function U(a;b;z) introduced by Template:Harvs, and sometimes denoted by Ψ(a;b;.z). The function U is defined in terms of Kummer's function M by

$U(a,b,z)={\frac {\Gamma (1-b)}{\Gamma (a-b+1)}}M(a,b,z)+{\frac {\Gamma (b-1)}{\Gamma (a)}}z^{1-b}M(a-b+1,2-b,z).$

This is undefined for integer b, but can be extended to integer b by continuity. Unlike Kummer's function which is an entire function of z, U(z) usually has a singularity at zero. But see #Special cases for some examples where it is an entire function (polynomial).

Note that if $\Gamma (b-1)/\Gamma (a)$ is zero (which can occur if a is a non-positive integer), then $U(a,b,z)$ and $M(a,b,z)$ are not independent and another solution is needed. Also when b is a non-positive integer we need another solution because then $M(a,b,z)$ is not defined. For instance, if a = 0 and b = 0, Kummer's function is undefined, but two independent solutions are $w(z)=U(0,0,z)=1$ and $w(z)=\exp(z).$ For a = 0 but at other values of b, we have the two solutions:

$U(0,b,z)=1$

$w(z)=\int _{-\infty }^{z}u^{-b}e^{u}\mathrm {d} u$

When b = 1 this second solution is the exponential integral Ei(z).

See #Special cases for solutions to some other cases.

Other equations

Confluent hypergeometric functions can be used to solve "most" second-order differential equations in which the coefficients are all linear functions of z:

$(A+Bz){\frac {d^{2}w}{dz^{2}}}+(C+Dz){\frac {dw}{dz}}+(E+Fz)w=0$

First of all, a substitution of A+Bz with a new z converts the equation to:

$z{\frac {d^{2}w}{dz^{2}}}+(C+Dz){\frac {dw}{dz}}+(E+Fz)w=0$

with new values of C, D, E, and F. (This step simply moves the regular singular point to 0.) If we then replace this z with $1/{\sqrt {D^{2}-4F}}$ times a new z, and multiply the equation by the same factor, we get:

$z{\frac {d^{2}w}{dz^{2}}}+\left(C+{\frac {D}{\sqrt {D^{2}-4F}}}z\right){\frac {dw}{dz}}+\left({\frac {E}{\sqrt {D^{2}-4F}}}+{\frac {F}{D^{2}-4F}}z\right)w=0$

whose solution is $\exp[-(1+D/(D^{2}-4F)^{1/2})z/2]w(z)$, where w(z) is a solution to Kummer's equation with $a=(1+D/(D^{2}-4F)^{1/2})C/2-E/{\sqrt {D^{2}-4F}}$ and $b=C$. Note that the square root may give an imaginary (or complex) number. If it is zero, another solution must be used, namely $\exp(-Dz/2)w(z)$, where w(z) is a confluent hypergeometric limit function satisfying $zw''(z)+Cw'(z)+(E-CD/2)w(z)=0.$

As noted lower down, even the Bessel equation can be solved using confluent hypergeometric functions.

Integral representations

If Re b > Re a > 0, M(a,b,z) can be represented as an integral

$M(a,b,z)={\frac {\Gamma (b)}{\Gamma (a)\Gamma (b-a)}}\int _{0}^{1}e^{zu}u^{a-1}(1-u)^{b-a-1}\,du\,\quad .$

thus $M(a,a+b,it)$ is the characteristic function of the beta distribution. For a with positive real part U can be obtained by the Laplace integral

$U(a,b,z)={\frac {1}{\Gamma (a)}}\int _{0}^{\infty }e^{-zt}t^{a-1}(1+t)^{b-a-1}\,dt,\quad (\operatorname {re} \ a>0)$

The integral defines a solution in the right half-plane re z > 0.

They can also be represented as Barnes integrals

$M(a,b,z)={\frac {1}{2\pi i}}{\frac {\Gamma (b)}{\Gamma (a)}}\int _{-i\infty }^{i\infty }{\frac {\Gamma (-s)\Gamma (a+s)}{\Gamma (b+s)}}(-z)^{s}ds$

where the contour passes to one side of the poles of Γ(−s) and to the other side of the poles of Γ(a+s).

Asymptotic behavior

If a solution to Kummer's equation is asymptotic to a power of z as z goes to infinity, then the power must be −a. This is in fact the case for Tricomi's solution U(a,b,z). Its asymptotic behavior as z → ∞ can be deduced from the integral representations. If z = x is real, then making a change of variables in the integral followed by expanding the binomial series and integrating it formally term by term gives rise to an asymptotic series expansion, valid as x → ∞:

$U(a,b,x)\sim x^{-a}\,_{2}F_{0}\left(a,a-b+1;\,;-{\frac {1}{x}}\right),$

where $_{2}F_{0}(\cdot ,\cdot ;;-1/x)$ is a generalized hypergeometric series (with 1 as leading term), which generally converges nowhere but exists as a formal power series in 1/x. This asymptotic expansion is also valid for complex z instead of real x, with $|\arg z|<{\tfrac {3}{2}}\pi .$

The asymptotic behavior of Kummer's solution for large |z| is:

$M(a,b,z)\sim \Gamma (b)\left({\frac {e^{z}z^{a-b}}{\Gamma (a)}}+{\frac {e^{-i\pi a}z^{-a}}{\Gamma (b-a)}}\right)$

The powers of z are taken using $-{\tfrac {3}{2}}\pi <\arg z\leq {\tfrac {1}{2}}\pi$. The first term is only needed when Γ(b-a) is infinite (that is, when b-a is a non-positive integer) or when the real part of z is non-negative, whereas the second term is only needed when Γ(a) is infinite (that is, when a is a non-positive integer) or when the real part of z is non-positive.

There is always some solution to Kummer's equation asymptotic to $e^{z}z^{a-b}$ as z goes to minus infinity. Usually this will be a combination of both $M(a,b,z){\text{ and }}U(a,b,z)$ but can also be expressed as $e^{z}(-1)^{a-b}U(b-a,b,-z)$.

Relations

There are many relations between Kummer functions for various arguments and their derivatives. This section gives a few typical examples.

Contiguous relations

Given M(a, b; z), the four functions M(a ± 1, b, z), M(a, b ± 1; z) are called contiguous to M(a, b; z). The function M(a, b; z) can be written as a linear combination of any two of its contiguous functions, with rational coefficients in terms of a, b, and z. This gives (Template:Su)=6 relations, given by identifying any two lines on the right hand side of

${\begin{aligned}z{\frac {dM}{dz}}=z{\frac {a}{b}}M(a+,b+)&=a(M(a+)-M)\\&=(b-1)(M(b-)-M)\\&=(b-a)M(a-)+(a-b+z)M\\&=z(a-b)M(b+)/b+zM\\\end{aligned}}$

In the notation above, M = M(a, b; z), M(a+) = M(a + 1, b; z), and so on.

Repeatedly applying these relations gives a linear relation between any three functions of the form M(a + m, b + n; z) (and their higher derivatives), where m, n are integers.

There are similar relations for U.

Kummer's transformation

Kummer's functions are also related by Kummer's transformations:

$M(a,b,z)=e^{z}\,M(b-a,b,-z)$

$U(a,b,z)=z^{1-b}U\left(1+a-b,2-b,z\right)$.

Multiplication theorem

The following multiplication theorems hold true:

${\begin{aligned}U(a,b,z)&=e^{(1-t)z}\sum _{i=0}{\frac {(t-1)^{i}z^{i}}{i!}}U(a,b+i,zt)=\\&=e^{(1-t)z}t^{b-1}\sum _{i=0}{\frac {\left(1-{\frac {1}{t}}\right)^{i}}{i!}}U(a-i,b-i,zt).\end{aligned}}$

Connection with Laguerre polynomials and similar representations

In terms of Laguerre polynomials, Kummer's functions have several expansions, for example

$M\left(a,b,{\frac {xy}{x-1}}\right)=(1-x)^{a}\cdot \sum _{n}{\frac {a^{(n)}}{b^{(n)}}}L_{n}^{(b-1)}(y)x^{n}$ Template:Harv

Special cases

Functions that can be expressed as special cases of the confluent hypergeometric function include:

• Some elementary functions (the left-hand side is not defined when b is a non-positive integer, but the right-hand side is still a solution of the corresponding Kummer equation):

$M(0,b,z)=1$

$U(0,c,z)=1$

$M(b,b,z)=\exp(z)$

$U(a,a,z)=\exp(z)\int _{z}^{\infty }u^{-a}\exp(-u)du$ (a polynomial if a is a non-positive integer)

${\frac {U(1,b,z)}{\Gamma (b-1)}}+{\frac {M(1,b,z)}{\Gamma (b)}}=z^{1-b}\exp(z)$

$U(a,a+1,z)=z^{-a}\,$

$U(-n,-2n,z)$ for integer n is a Bessel polynomial (see lower down).

$M(n,b,z)$ for non-positive integer n is a generalized Laguerre polynomial.

• Bateman's function
• Bessel functions and many related functions such as Airy functions, Kelvin functions, Hankel functions.

For example, the special case $b=2a$ the function reduces to a Bessel function:

${\begin{aligned}\,_{1}F_{1}(a,2a,x)&=e^{\frac {x}{2}}\,_{0}F_{1}(;a+{\tfrac {1}{2}};{\tfrac {1}{16}}x^{2})\\&=e^{\frac {x}{2}}\left({\tfrac {1}{4}}x\right)^{{\tfrac {1}{2}}-a}\Gamma \left(a+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\right)I_{a-{\frac {1}{2}}}\left({\tfrac {1}{2}}x\right).\end{aligned}}$

This identity is sometimes also referred to as Kummer's second transformation. Similarly

$U(a,2a,x)={\frac {e^{\frac {x}{2}}}{\sqrt {\pi }}}x^{{\frac {1}{2}}-a}K_{a-{\frac {1}{2}}}\left({\frac {x}{2}}\right),$

When $a$ is a non-positive integer, this equals $2^{-a}\theta _{-a}(x/2)$ where θ is a Bessel polynomial.

• The error function can be expressed as

$\mathrm {erf} (x)={\frac {2}{\sqrt {\pi }}}\int _{0}^{x}e^{-t^{2}}dt={\frac {2x}{\sqrt {\pi }}}\,_{1}F_{1}\left({\frac {1}{2}},{\frac {3}{2}},-x^{2}\right).$

• Coulomb wave function
• Cunningham functions
• Exponential integral and related functions such as the sine integral, logarithmic integral
• Hermite polynomials
• Incomplete gamma function
• Laguerre polynomials
• Parabolic cylinder function (or Weber function)
• Poisson–Charlier function
• Toronto functions
• Whittaker functions M_κ,μ(z), W_κ,μ(z) are solutions of Whittaker's equation that can be expressed in terms of Kummer functions M and U by

$M_{\kappa ,\mu }\left(z\right)=\exp \left(-z/2\right)z^{\mu +{\tfrac {1}{2}}}M\left(\mu -\kappa +{\frac {1}{2}},1+2\mu ;z\right)$

$W_{\kappa ,\mu }\left(z\right)=\exp \left(-z/2\right)z^{\mu +{\tfrac {1}{2}}}U\left(\mu -\kappa +{\frac {1}{2}},1+2\mu ;z\right)$

• The general p-th raw moment (p not necessarily an integer) can be expressed as

$\operatorname {E} \left[\left|N\left(\mu ,\sigma ^{2}\right)\right|^{p}\right]=\left(2\sigma ^{2}\right)^{\frac {p}{2}}{\frac {\Gamma \left({\frac {1+p}{2}}\right)}{\sqrt {\pi }}}\,_{1}F_{1}\left(-{\frac {p}{2}},{\frac {1}{2}},-{\frac {\mu ^{2}}{2\sigma ^{2}}}\right),$

$\operatorname {E} \left[N\left(\mu ,\sigma ^{2}\right)^{p}\right]=(-2\sigma ^{2})^{\frac {p}{2}}\cdot U\left(-{\frac {p}{2}},{\frac {1}{2}},-{\frac {\mu ^{2}}{2\sigma ^{2}}}\right)$ (the function's second branch cut can be chosen by multiplying with $(-1)^{p}$).

Application to continued fractions

By applying a limiting argument to Gauss's continued fraction it can be shown that

${\frac {M(a+1,b+1,z)}{M(a,b,z)}}={\cfrac {1}{1-{\cfrac {\displaystyle {\frac {b-a}{b(b+1)}}z}{1+{\cfrac {\displaystyle {\frac {a+1}{(b+1)(b+2)}}z}{1-{\cfrac {\displaystyle {\frac {b-a+1}{(b+2)(b+3)}}z}{1+{\cfrac {\displaystyle {\frac {a+2}{(b+3)(b+4)}}z}{1-\ddots }}}}}}}}}}$

and that this continued fraction converges uniformly to a meromorphic function of z in every bounded domain that does not include a pole.

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  A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running
  
  The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more
  
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  My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534

External links

• Confluent Hypergeometric Functions in NIST Digital Library of Mathematical Functions
• Kummer hypergeometric function on the Wolfram Functions site
• Tricomi hypergeometric function on the Wolfram Functions site